Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977)
Factors Affecting Women's Political Representation
Map 1.1
Map 1.2
Tanzania Introduces a Multi-Party System
Tanzania’s 1st female president praises political tolerance
The Right to Organise as Mother of All Rights
Women political leaders' participation in local decision making
Women's Political Participation in Tanzania
Overview
This OER describes the plight of women in Tanzania's political sphere. The objective of the resource is to provide a general background and prompt greater conversation about women's role and political participation locally and globally.
Learning Objectives
Understand the historical context of women’s political participation in Tanzania
Examine contemporary challenges women face in the Tanzanian political landscape
Highlight important figures and moments that have shaped women’s political involvement in Tanzania
Create and reflect on potential strategies to improve women’s political participation
Included in this section are two maps. Map 1.1 distinguishes the colonial borders of the country, while Map 1.2 features the contemporary space of Tanzania. It is important to note that all maps are political and vulnerable to be politicized. It is key that we evaluate maps with as critical of an eye as we do for other sources of information.
Pre-Independence and the Early Days of Tanzania
Acronyms TANU (Tanganyika African National Union) - Party for Mainland Tanzania ASP (Afro-Shirazi Party) - Party for the Island (Zanzibar) CCM (Chama Cha Mapinduzi) - Merger of TANU and ASP UWT (Union of Tanzanian Women) |
Lesson Objectives:
To understand the historical political contexts of Tanzania
To evaluate women's roles/positions within this historical framework
19th Century Zanzibar
Zanzibar consists of two main islands (Unjuya and Pemba) with smaller surrounding islands
Located in the eastern region of the continent, its proximity to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar was a prime location for trade routes, including the East African slave trade (
Leading producer of cloves, reliant on slave labor for production
Sultan and other Arab elites enslaved local Africans
Women were largely excluded from political leadership, specifically due to the power of Arab elites alongside patriarchal customs.
The Arab-African tensions that arose in Zanzibar were deeply connected to racial and ethnic issues, but gender dynamics complicated these existing divisions
This division worsened after the 1964 Zanzibar Revolution, which excluded women from power post-coup.
Instructions: Watch "Introduction" and "History of Zanzibar" (0:00-08:14). Review bullet points and cross-reference the video with the text assigned for this section. Draft 2-3 connections and/or questions about both materials.
Guiding Questions:
- How was education utilized by Zanzibari women to assert power in the pre-1964 revolution?
- What are the shifts evident in women's role pre and post independence movement?
- Consider how this historical context impacts the plight of women in political spaces today.
20th Century Zanzibar and Tanzania's Transformation
Instructions: Read assigned texts and review bullet points in this section. For the "Constitution of Tanzania 1977", skim through and identify amendments that pique your interests.
The merger of TANU and ASP to form CCM marked the beginning of a more unified national political identity, but one that still struggled with gender inclusivity. The decision to establish a one-party state reflected a top-down approach to governance, which often overlooked gender equity in the initial years.
The 1950s is characterized by anti-colonial rhetoric, and many African countries seeking social, economic, and political regimes
Concurrently, political parties begin to form, organizing along ethnic boundaries
Zanzibar received formal independence from Britain, becoming a constitutional monarchy, on December 10th, 1963
- The coup in 1964, while shifting power to the ASP, also further marginalized women’s participation in political leadership, the exclusion of the Arab community (including Arab women), deepening ethnic tensions, and reinforcing patriarchal control
Racial tensions with general dissatisfaction in civic engagement by the appointed leader, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) overthrew the elected government while disposing of Sultan and Arab communities; it is this violent but effective coup that prompted the merging of Tanganyika (mainland) and Zanzibar to become the United Republic of Tanzania.
- Formation of Tanzania:
- While the state was built on socialist ideas and promoted some level of gender equality, women were often relegated to secondary roles in governance. However, it is worth noting that Neyere’s policies did lay some of the groundwork for gender equality
- Union of Tanzanian Women (UWT)
- TANU (and later CCM) became a dominant political force, and the Union of Tanzanian Women (UWT) played an important role in organizing women in the fight for gender equality. UWT was central in promoting women’s rights, especially in the 1960s-70s, and served as an arm of the ruling party to encourage women’s participation in the political process under the watchful eye of the party’s male-dominated leadership
New State of the Union: Tanzania
The start of a new union, the Presidential Commission recommends a democratic one-party state (1964)
1975 marks the year Tanzania establishes constitutional amendment to one-party supremacy
"The Tanzanian constitution was formally amended to enshrine party supremacy so that 'all political activities in Tanzania shall be carried out by, or under the auspices of the party (TANU or ASP) and that "the function of all organs of the state of the United Republic shall be performed under the auspices of the Party" (Ngasongwa, 112)
1977, ASP and TANU merged to become Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM). CCM inherits constitutional/legal protections
Implications of Tanzanian Women in the Political Landscape
Instructions: Read the assigned text of this section and take note of these examples used to highlight the challenges of women's political representation in Tanzania.
- Cultural Norms
Women are often viewed primarily as homemakers, caregivers, and nurturers, with their primary responsibilities confined to the domestic sphere. These traditional gender norms reinforce the perception that leadership and governance are male-dominated roles
Political leadership is often associated with traits like assertiveness, decisiveness, and authority, which are stereotypically seen as masculine qualities. In contrast, women are often perceived as soft-spoken or submissive
" 'The perception that leadership is masculine affects how people vote. We've seen qualified women facing resistance due to these stereotypes, resulting in fewer women in key positions. (Participant 05, Dodoma city, 22nd August 2023).' " ( Tarimo and Dominico, "Factors Affecting," 17.)
In rural areas, these traditional views are even more entrenched. Women who seek to engage in politics are often met with resistance from family members, community leaders, or even male politicians, who believe that a woman’s place is in the home, not in public life
"...it soon became clear that although politics may have been traditionally regarded as a domain reserved for men, their mothers, wives, and/or sisters could not ignored..." (Tenga and Peter, "The Right," 146).
- Highlighting the additional caregiving responsibilities specific to women. This is particularly challenging in countries where access to affordable childcare and family support systems is limited. Childcare is viewed as 'women's work'; therefore, it is not considered a priority of the nation
- Financial Disparities
- Running for political office or being involved in political campaigns requires financial resources. However, many women, especially in rural areas, lack the economic independence needed to fund their political aspirations
- Economic inequality also means that women have limited access to the education and training required to succeed in the political sphere
- Lack of financial autonomy outside of male sponsorship
- Institutional Practices and Structural Barriers
- Quotas, while beneficial in increasing the number of women in legislative bodies, do not guarantee women’s leadership or influence in decision-making processes
- "Diverse factors, including the competition caused by the First Past the Post electoral system, challenges associated with the implementation of the special seats system, gaps in the legal framework, weaknesses of political parties' women's wings, the lack of competition from other political parties on women's inclusion..." (Lihiru, "Promoting Women's," 1005.)
- Resistance within the political parties as male party leaders often dominate the selection of candidates, and women are frequently relegated to secondary positions or lower-profile roles within the party hierarchy
- Tanzania's political institutions lack gender-sensitive policies that would support women’s participation in politics. For instance, there are few mechanisms to protect women from gender-based violence or harassment in the political arena
- Quotas, while beneficial in increasing the number of women in legislative bodies, do not guarantee women’s leadership or influence in decision-making processes
Women's Political Identity and Leadership
Instructions: Watch the full video, read the assigned texts, and take notes of connections between this section and other parts of the lesson.
- As Tanzania transitioned from a one-party state to a multi-party democracy, women began to assert themselves more forcefully in the political sphere
- Women's political identity became more independent and assertive manner. Activism was not only about supporting national goals but also about advancing gender equality and challenging patriarchal structures within the state and society.
The election of Samia Suluhu Hassan as Tanzania's first female president in 2021 marks pivotal shifts in ideological and political beliefs. Women in the public space also allow the opportunity for true gender equity. In other words, the gendered characteristics surrounding women (e.g., submissive, docile, weak, unassertive) are not positive attributes in politics. Women in politics are scrutinized harsher than their male contemporaries. This is simply to note that women are not above criticism but, should be allowed the same 'leeway' as male politicians.
Concluding Questions
Guiding Concluding Questions:
- How did the historical context of slavery and ethnic divisions in Zanzibar shape women’s political participation during the 19th and early 20th centuries?
- How have patriarchal views on leadership in Tanzania influenced perceptions of women’s political capabilities? Can you think of any ways these views are being challenged today?
- What are the symbolic and practical implications of having Samia Suluhu Hassan as Tanzania’s first female president? How does her leadership challenge traditional gender norms?
- In what ways does President Samia’s leadership reflect the broader global trend of female political leadership in Africa and around the world?
Bibliography
Lihiru, Victoria Melkisedeck. "Promoting Women's Political Participation in Tanzania: Assessing Voluntary Gender Quotas in CCM's and CHADEMA's Constitutions." Journal of Southern African Studies, March 19, 2024, 1003-21. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03057070.2023.2327265.
Liviga, Athumani J. "Tanzania: A Bumpy Road to Consolidated Democracy." Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review 25, no. 1 (2009): 1-42. Accessed December 2, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1353/eas.0.0005.
Makalanga, L.B, R.G Kilonzo, and A.M Nguyahambi. "Women Political Leaders' Participation in Local Decision-Making Structures in Tanzania." AFRICAN JOURNAL of APPLIED RESEARCH 8, no. 2 (2022): 68-82. https://doi.org/10.26437/ajar.31.10.2022.05.
Ngansongwa, Juma. "Tanzania Introduces a Multi-Party System." Review of African Political Economy 54 (July 1992): 112-16. JSTOR.
Snyder, Katherine A. "Building Democracy from Below: A Case from Rural Tanzania." The Journal of Modern African Studies 46, no. 2 (2008): 287-304. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022278x08003236.
Tarimo, Elias Adolf, and Mbogo Kabeke Dominico. "Factors Affecting Women's Political Representation in Tanzania." Accountancy and Business Review 16, no. 3 (2024): 12-23. Accessed December 1, 2024.
Tenga, Nakazael, and Chris Maina Peter. "The Right to Organise as Mother of All Rights: The Experience of Women in Tanzania." The Journal of Modern African Studies 34, no. 1 (1996): 143-62. JSTOR.