Class Lecture Notes Synthesis

HOW TO WRITE: AP Rhetorical Analysis Paragraphs and Essays 

Things you must know in order to accurately analyze a text: 

1. SOAPS
2. Rhetorical Strategies 

a. Appeals (ethos, logos, pathos) 

b. Style (diction, syntax, details, imagery, tone, etc.)
3. Why did the author choose these strategies for the particular audience, occasion, and/or purpose? 

a. This is the analysis part! Without this, you are merely summarizing the text. b. Think about these questions: 

i. HOW do the rhetorical strategies help the author achieve his/her purpose?
ii. WHY does the author chose those strategies for that particular audience and for that particular occasion? 

Once you’ve identified the information above, it’s time to begin putting your thoughts and ideas into a format that proves you have accurately analyzed the text. There are many ways to write an effective rhetorical analysis essay. Below is one way that is a good, simple format to help you get started. You may find as you become more comfortable with analysis that you want to deviate from this format. That’s fine as long as you are still focusing on numbers 1-3 from above. 

Introduction 

The introductory paragraph to an analysis essay is usually brief. However, it must contain some essential information. 

Put SOAPS in your introduction and follow this format: 

FORMAT: 

1. Speaker, Occasion, and Subject
(Writer’s credentials), (writer’s first and last name), in his/her (type of text), (title of text), (strong verb – see list at end of this handout) (writer’s subject). 

Well-known essayist and writer, Joan Didion, in her essay, The Santa Ana, describes the dramatic mood altering effects of the Santa Ana winds on human behavior. 

2. Purpose
(Writer’s last name)’s purpose is to (what the writer does in the text). 

Didion’s purpose is to impress upon readers the idea that the winds themselves change the way people act and react. 

3. Audience
He/she adopts a[n] (adjective describing the attitude/feeling conveyed by the writer) tone in order to (verb phrase describing what the writer wants readers to do/think) in his/her (intended
audience). 

She creates a dramatic tone in order to convey to her readers the idea that the winds are sinister and their effects inescapable. 

EXAMPLE: 

Novelist, Amy Tan, in her narrative essay, “Fish Cheeks,” recounts an embarrassing Christmas Eve dinner when she was 14 years old. Tan’s purpose is to convey the idea that, at fourteen, she wasn’t able to recognize the love her mother had for her or the sacrifices she made. She adopts a sentimental tone in order to appeal to similar feelings and experiences in her adult readers. 

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Body 

This is the analysis part! This is where you include a detailed explanation of strategies used by the writer. 

When writing an analysis, it is crucial that you work chronologically through the text. This means that you start at the beginning of the text and work your way through it by discussing what the writer is saying and the effectiveness of the strategies he/she is using at the beginning, middle, and end of the text. 

Sometimes this means that you will discuss each paragraph (one at a time), and sometimes this means that you will divide the text into sections and discuss the beginning, middle, and end of the text. Whether you discuss each paragraph or each section depends on the length and organization of the text itself. 

To help you move chronologically through the text, there are transition words you can use. A few of them are listed below: 

Begins opens closes contrasts Shifts to juxtaposes ends moves to 

Every analysis paragraph MUST:
Identify the part of the text you are analyzing by using transition words and strong verbs to 

explain what is being said.
Identify the strongest rhetorical strategies used in that particular section. This includes 

incorporating specific text examples (exact words from the text – see last page of this handout for proper format) into your own words. Do NOT try to discuss every strategy the writer uses; pick the strongest! 

Clearly and specifically explain how the rhetorical strategies are used to help the writer achieve his purpose and reach his audience. 

The above items must be woven together seamlessly into one sophisticated paragraph of the body of your analysis essay. A sample format is below: 

FORMAT and EXAMPLE [from Pres. Reagan’s speech after the space shuttle Challenger explosion in the 1980s]: 

1. The first sentence identifies which section of the text you are discussing and the main idea of that section. 

(Writer’s last name) (transition word) his/her (type of text) by (strong verb) that (main idea of this section of the text). 

Reagan begins his tribute to the Challenger astronauts by acknowledging that the shuttle accident has appropriately postponed his planned State of the Union address and by expressing the depth of his and his wife’s personal grief. 

2. The second sentence conveys the writer’s support for the main idea by identifying and providing a specific example for one rhetorical strategy used by the writer. [This sentence is repeated if you want to discuss more than one rhetorical strategy.]
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He appeals to the mournful emotions of the audience by admitting that he and Nancy are “pained to the core” (3), that today is rightfully a “day for mourning and remembering” (2-3), and that the accident is “truly a national loss” (4). 

3. The third sentence explains how the rhetorical strategies you discussed in the previous sentences help the writer achieve his purpose by using an in order to statement. 

He joins in this time of mourning in order to unify the nation and humbly admit that “we share this pain with all of the people of our country” (4). 

4. The fourth sentence identifies the effect of the writer’s use of these rhetorical strategies on the audience. 

This outpouring of emotion from the president conveys a calming tone that reassures the Nation that their grief is both understandable and proper. 

Put it all together and this is what one paragraph of the body of a rhetorical analysis essay might look like:
Reagan begins his tribute to the Challenger astronauts by acknowledging that the shuttle accident has appropriately postponed his planned State of the Union address and by expressing the depth of his and his wife’s personal grief. He appeals to the mournful emotions of the audience by admitting that he and Nancy are “pained to the core” (3), that today is rightfully a “day for mourning and remembering” (2-3), and that the accident is “truly a national loss” (4). He joins in this time of mourning in order to unify the nation and humbly admit that “we share this pain with all of the people of our country” (4). This outpouring of emotion from the president conveys a calming tone that reassures the Nation that their grief is both understandable and proper. 

Conclusion 

The conclusion is probably the easiest part. Be brief. In one-two sentences, simply remind your reader of the things you said in the introduction. 

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Powerful and meaningful verbs to use in your analyses: 

Alternatives to “show” 

Optimize Organize Outline Overstate Persist
Point out Possess Predict Present Probe Produce Promote Propose Prove Provide Qualify Quantify Question Realize Recommend Reconstruct Redefine Reduce Refer Reference Refine Reflect Refute Regard Reject Relate 

Rely Remove Repair Report 

Acknowledge Discuss Address Dismiss Analyze Distinguish Apply Duplicate Argue Elaborate Assert Emphasize Augment Employ Broaden Enable Calculate Engage Capitalize Enhance Characterize Establish Claim Evaluate Clarify Exacerbate Compare Examine Complicate Exclude Confine Exhibit Connect Expand Consider Explain Construct Exploit Contradict Express Correct Extend Create Facilitate Convince Feature Critique Forecast Declare Formulate Deduce Fracture Defend Generalize Demonstrate Group
Deny Guide Describe Hamper Determine Hypothesize Differentiate Identify Disagree Illuminate Discard Illustrate Discover Impair 

Implement Implicate Imply Improve Include Incorporate Indicate Induce Initiate Inquire Instigate Integrate Interpret Intervene Invert Isolate Justify Locate Loosen Maintain Manifest Manipulate Measure Merge Minimize Modify Monitor Necessitate Negate Nullify Obscure Observe Obtain Offer 

Omit 

Strong vs. Weak Verbs 

To help you move away from summary and toward ANALYSIS, you need to begin to incorporate strong verbs into your writing when discussing the writer’s rhetorical choices. Below is a list of verbs that are considered weak because they imply summary and a list of verbs that are considered strong because they imply analysis. Strive to use the stronger verbs in your essays to help push yourself away from summary and toward analysis: “The writer flatters...” NOT “The writer says...” 

WEAK VERBS (Summary) 

says relates explains states 

STRONG VERBS (Analysis) 

implies trivializes denigrates lionizes praises supports admonishes expounds lists warns 

goes on to say shows 

qualifies analyzes contrasts defines 

tells 

processes questions emphasizes ridicules 

this quote shows 

flatters dismisses enumerates argues 

describes compares demonizes minimizes 

suggests vilifies 

establishes narrates 

Represent Resolve Retrieve Reveal Revise Separate Shape Signify Simulate Solve Specify Structure Suggest Summarize Support Suspend Sustain Tailor Terminate Testify Theorize Translate Undermine Understand Unify Utilize Validate Vary 

View Vindicate Yield 

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Analyzing DICTION
Diction is simply the words the writer chooses to convey a particular meaning. 

When analyzing diction, look for specific words or short phrases that seem stronger than the others (ex. Bragg’s use of slingshot instead of travel). Diction is NEVER the entire sentence! 

Also, look for a pattern (or similarity) in the words the writer chooses (ex. Do the words imply sadness, happiness, etc?). This pattern helps to create a particular kind of diction. 

This pattern can also include repetition of the same words or phrases. Repeating the same word or phrase helps the reader emphasize a point, feeling, etc. 

Effective diction is shaped by words that are clear, concrete, and exact. Good writers avoid words like pretty, nice, and bad because they are not specific enough. Instead, they rely on words that invoke a specific effect in order to bring the reader into the event being described. 

Examples:
A coat isn’t torn; it is tattered.
The US Army does not want revenge; it is thirsting for revenge. A door does not shut; it thuds. 

Diction depends on subject, purpose, occasion, and audience.
The subject often determines how specific or sophisticated the diction needs to be. For example, articles on computers are filled with a specialized language: e-mail, e-shopping, web, interface. Many topics generated special vocabularies to convey meaning. 

The writer’s purpose – whether to persuade, entertain, inform – partly determines diction. Words chosen to impart a particular effect on the reader reflect the writer’s purpose. For example, if an author’s purpose is to inform, the reader should expect straightforward diction. On the other hand, if the author’s purpose is to entertain, the readers will likely encounter words used in ironic, playful, or unexpected ways. 

Diction also depends on occasion. Formal diction is reserved for scholarly writing and serious texts. Informal diction is often used in narrative essays and newspaper editorials. Colloquial diction and slang are typically used to capture the language of a particular time frame or culture. 

Finally, the type of diction a writer uses depends on the audience (readers, listeners). An author who uses sophisticated diction knows he is writing for an intelligent audience. An author who uses more informal diction knows he is writing for an audience of varied intelligence. 

When you are writing an essay in which you are analyzing the diction of the writer:
Avoid saying: “The writer used diction...” – since this is obvious (diction IS the words on the page; without them, the page would be blank ). 

Instead, say: “The writer creates a ______________ diction through the use of...” OR “The language of the text is ___________________.” 

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Below are just a few words that you may use to describe the type of diction used by the writer. You may want to add words to this list or circle the ones you use frequently. 

abstract academic ambiguous biting bombastic brusque cacophonous casual
caustic colloquial colorful common concrete connotative conversational crisp 

cultured 

curt denotative detached divisive emotional esoteric euphemistic euphonious everyday exact fanciful figurative flowery folksy formal grandiose idiomatic 

inflammatory inflated informal insincere jargon learned literal 

loaded lyrical melodious monosyllabic nostalgic obscene obscure offensive ordinary ornate 

passionate patriotic pedantic picturesque plain 

poetic political polysyllabic precise pretentious provincial romantic scholarly sentimental shocking sincere slang 

subdued symbolic tame technical trite unifying uppity vague vulgar 

OTHERS: 

abstract diction concrete diction elevated/formal low/informal 

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Analyzing SYNTAX Syntax refers to the way words are arranged within sentences. 

Schemes
One aspect of syntax is schemes. Most English sentences follow a subject-verb-object pattern (ex. I went to the store.) Deviating from this pattern can serve to add emphasize to the author’s ideas. 

Sentence Length
Another aspect of syntax is sentence length. Good writers will use a variety for emphasis. 

Short sentences – imply straightforward Long sentences – imply descriptive, detailed 

Sentence Type 

A third aspect of syntax is sentence type. Again, good writers use a variety.
Simple: subject-verb (I went to the store.)
Compound: 2 independent clauses joined by a conjunction (I went to the store, and I 

bought candy.)
Complex: independent clause and dependent clause (While traveling to the store, I saw 

my friend.)
Compound-complex: 2 independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (While 

traveling to the store, I saw my friend, and she gave me money for candy.) Declarative: statement (I went to the store.)
Exclamatory: strong feeling (What a wonderful candy store!) Interrogative: question (Is this a store?) 

Imperative: command (Go to the store.) 

Punctuation 

A final aspect of syntax is punctuation. Yes, good writers use a variety here too. Semicolon(;) gives equal weight to two or more independent clauses in a sentence. 

Writers use this to reinforce parallel ideas and show how both ideas are equally important Colon(:) directs the reader’s attention to the words that follow. Writers use this to show 

the reader that the information after the colon is important.
Dash (-) marks a sudden change in thought or tone or sets off a brief summary 

SYNTAX WORDS 

balanced sentence
complex sentence
compound sentence compound-complex sentence declarative 

exclamatory imperative interrogative interruption 

inversion
juxtaposition loose/cumulative sentence parallel structure
periodic sentence repetition
rhetorical question
simple sentence 

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Analyzing TONE Tone is the writer’s attitude or feeling about the subject of his text. 

It is a special kind of rhetorical strategy because tone is created by the writer’s use of all of the other rhetorical strategies. 

Diction & Tropes
Syntax & Schemes Details & Lack of Details 

When discussing an author’s tone, you must be careful to choose the right word. Below is a list of tone words. Use them in your essays to describe the tone of the piece but only if you are sure you know the word’s meaning (not sure – look it up in a dictionary). 

When writing your essay, avoid saying: “The writer uses tone” since ALL writers use a tone of some kind. Instead, say: “The writer creates a __________ tone...” 

abhorrence abrasive abrupt abstract accusatory admiring admonitory affected
afraid ambivalent amused amusing analytical angry annoyed anxious apathetic apologetic apprehensive approving argumentative artful audacious austere authentic authoritative awe 

awkward baffled bantering bemused benevolent bitter 

blunt
bold bookish boring bucolic callous calm candid candid cautious cautious cerebral ceremonial cheery childish childish cliché clinical cold 

comic compassionate compelling complementary complicated complimentary concerned conciliatory concise condemning condescending confident confiding confused 

contemptuous contented contrived corny 

critical
critical
curious cynical
dark
delightful dense
derisive despairing desperate detached detached didactic disappointed disbelieving disdainful disgusted dismayed disparaging distinctive disturbed down-to-earth dramatic dreamy dreary 

dull earnest economical edgy 

effective effusive elated elated elegant elegiac elitist eloquent embittered endearing energetic enlightening entertaining enthusiastic erudite exaggerating exuberant facetious factual factual fanciful fascinated fearful flippant fluent focused forced forceful foreboding forgettable forgiving formal formulaic 

forthright fresh frivolous funny furious giddy gimmicky glib
gloomy graceful grandiose grim
gritty grudging gutsy hackneyed happy
harsh haughty haunting hollow hollow honest hopeful hopeless horrific humorous hyperbolic idealistic idiosyncratic imaginative impartial impassioned 

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impulsive incisive incredulous indifferent indignant indulgent inflammatory informal informative insightful insisting insolent instructive instructive insubstantial intellectual interesting intimate inviting 

irate
ironic irrelevant irreverent irritated joking
jovial
joyful judgmental labored lackadaisical lackluster laudatory learned light lighthearted lofty 

loving 

lucid
lush
lyrical
matter of fact maudlin meditative melancholic melancholy melodramatic memorable mock-heroic mocking mock-serious moralizing morbid mordant mournful narrow nostalgic objective obvious offbeat offensive opinionated optimistic ordinary ostentatious outraged outrageous overdone paradoxical passionate patronizing peaceful pedantic pedestrian pejorative 

pensive persuasive pessimistic pessimistic piquant
pitiful
pitiful
plaintive plaintive playful
poetic pompous preachy predictable pretentious profound prosaic
proud provocative provocative purple
puzzled querulous questioning rambling reader-friendly realistic reflective refreshing regretful reminiscent repetitive repressed reproachful resigned resigned respectful 

restrained revealing reverent rhapsodic
sad sanctimonious sarcastic sardonic satiric satisfied scornful seductive self-indulgent sensuous sentimental sentimental serene 

serious severe shallow sharp shocked silly
simple simplistic sincere sober solemn somber sophomoric spicy spiteful stiff strident striking strong substantive 

subtle superficial surprise surprising suspicious sweet
sweet sympathetic talky
taunting thorough thoughtful thought- provoking threatening tired
tiresome tolerant
trite
troubled unconvincing underdone uneven unsympathetic upset 

urbane urgent vexed vibrant wary whimsical wise wistful witty wordy wry zealous 

MOOD WORDS: Sometimes the TONE will set a MOOD.
bleak, dark, delirious, dismal, eerie, elegiac, haunting, lonely, ominous, peaceful, playful, quizzical, reproachful, satiric, serene, soothing, suspenseful, tense, threatening, uplifting, whimsical 

CHARACTER WORDS: Sometimes you need to describe the SPEAKER.
absorbed, aggressive, aloof, ambitious, amorous, anxious, apathetic, argumentative, arrogant, bitter, bored, carefree, careless, 

cautious, churlish, compassionate, conceited, conniving, curious, deceitful, demure, detached, devious, devoted, dishonest, easygoing, envious, exacting, frantic, fretful, gregarious, intelligent, irritable, loquacious, manipulative, mendacious, naïve, nervous, noble, outgoing, patient, picky, scrupulous, self-involved, sincere, sloppy, spontaneous, suspicious, talkative, testy, uninvolved, unpredictable, vindictive, welcoming, wise, worried 

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