Guided Notes for Chapter 4-Concepts of Biology by Open Stax

Chapter 4 Guided Notes

4.1: Energy and Metabolism

1. All the chemical reactions that take place inside of cells, are referred to as ____________________________

1. True or false: Metabolism also refers to those chemical reactions that either consumer or generate energy inside of cells.

1. True or false both photosynthesis and cellular respiration are examples of cellular metabolism?
2. Metabolic pathways that take small molecules and build larger ones, and require energy are _______________________ pathways.
3. _______________________ pathways are those that release energy by breaking down large molecules into smaller ones.
4. True or false: Both anabolic and catabolic pathways are necessary for maintaining the cell’s energy balance.
5. ____________________refers to the study of energy and energy transfers involving physical matter.

1. The specific matter regarding a specific case of energy transfer is called a ______________.
2. There are two types of systems ________________ and _____________________

1. In an _____________ system energy may be exchanged with its surroundings.
2. In a ____________________ system energy cannot be exchanged with its surroundings.
3. Human beings represent an __________________ system

1. __________________ is defined as the ability to do work, or to create change.
2. List some examples of energy here.

1. __________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________

1. The laws of thermodynamics

1. Write out the first law here. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. True or false: Electrical energy may be converted into heat energy?

1. Write out the second law here. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. True or false: Energy transfers are never 100% efficient.

1. The energy associated with a non-moving car is?

1. Kinetic energy
2. Potential energy

1. A skydiver falling through the air towards the ground represents

1. Kinetic energy or
2. Potential energy

1. True or False: The second law of thermodynamics states that in any energy transfer some energy will be lost in the form of heat.
2. True or False: Heat energy is wasted energy?

1. Chemical reactions that releases energy is termed

1. Exergonic reactions or
2. Endergonic reactions

1. Chemical reactions that store free energy into their products are termed

1. Endergonic or
2. Exergonic reactions

1. Which reaction exergonic or endergonic is nonspontaneous.

1. All chemical reactions require a small input of energy to start the reaction. This kind of energy is called:

1. ___________________________________________________________

1. Any substance that helps a chemical reaction to occur is called a __________________________.
2. What are biological catalysts called ________________________________________________.
3. Enzymes function to speed up chemical reactions many times inside cells.  How does an enzyme speed up a chemical reaction?

1. ___________________________________________________________________________
2. True or False: Enzymes are not changed by the reactions that they catalyze.  Enzymes are reusable inside cells.
3. Most enzymes are made up of ________________________ molecules
4. Enzymes bind to specific molecules that are called _______________________________.
5. The part of the enzyme that a substrate binds to is called its _____________  __________.
6. List three environmental influences that affect an enzymes function.

1. _______________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________

1. The loss of an enzymes 3-D shape is called __________________________
2. The model that explains enzyme activity is the _____________ - _____________ model.
3. Enzyme activity may be inhibited when an inhibitor molecule binds to the active site and prevents the normal substrate from binding.  This type of inhibition is called:

1. __________________________________________________________

1. An inhibitor that binds to a region other than the active site is called a

1. ________________________________________________________
2. One type of non-competitive inhibition that reduces an enzymes affinity for its substrate is called ________________ inhibition.
3. A molecule that binds to an enzyme and increases its affinity for its substrate is called an________________________ activator.

1. Enzyme helpers:

1. Enzyme helpers are organic non-protein molecules called _______________________

1. One example is vitamin _________

1. Ions such as magnesium or iron that are necessary for enzymatic catalyzed reactions are called ________________.

1. Feedback regulation of metabolic pathways.

1. __________________ ________________________ involves the use of a reaction product to regulate its own production.

4.2 Glycolysis

1. The primary energy currency of cells is adenosine triphosphate or ___________.
2. Explain briefly how does ATP function? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. ATP Structure and Function

1. A molecule of ATP is made up of three other molecules.  These molecules are:

1. _______________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________

1. Glycolysis

1. _________________________ is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism.

1. Glycolysis takes place in the __________________ of cells.

1. Glycolysis breaks down a six-carbon molecule of _________________ into two three-carbon sugar molecules of ______________________.
2. Glycolysis occurs in two distinct phases.  In the first phase energy is used to split glucose into two three-carbon molecules, which requires an input of energy. In the second phase, besides two molecules of pyruvate, two other products are formed:

1. ________________________________________
2. ________________________________________

1. If pyruvate cannot be broken down any further, then what is the net gain of  ATP produced per glucose oxidized in glycolysis

1. _______ ATP

4.3 Citric Acid Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation

1. The Citric Acid Cycle

1. In eukaryotic cells in the presence of oxygen, pyruvate diffuses into the mitochondrion.  In the mitochondrion the pyruvate is prepared for the citric acid cycle.  Two steps take place to prepare pyruvate, list them below:

1. _________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________
3. The resulting compound is called ______________________________

1. Next acetyl Co-A enters the reactions of the citric acid cycle.  These reactions take place in which part of the mitochondrion. Choose the correct answer below.

1. Intermembrane space
2. Intermembrane compartment
3. Mitochondrial matrix

1. The citric acid cycle occurs in eight steps.  For each pyruvate that enters the mitochondrion What compounds are produced as a result?

1.  3NAD+ are reduced to 3 _________________________
2. 1FAD+ is reduced to 1  __________________________
3. A gas is produced, 2 molecules of ________________
4. And one molecule of ATP is produced.

1. Oxidative Phosphorylation

1. This is the last step of aerobic respiration; this process is responsible for the production of most of the ATP produced in aerobic respiration.

1. Oxidative phosphorylation involves a series of specialized protein carriers embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, or in the cell membrane of bacteria.
2. Collectively the specialized protein carriers together with associated mobile, accessory electron carriers  are called the

1. __________________  ______________________ _______________
2. The membrane protein that generates ATP is called ____________________.
3. The actual process that generates ATP during oxidative phosphorylation is called ____________________.

1. ATP Yield

1. The ATP yield from the use of NAD+ as an electron carrier is (greater/ or less) than the yield from the use of FAD+ as an electron carrier.
2. True or False: ATP yield also differs depending upon the tissue in which it is being generated.
3. True or False: Another factor that affects the overall yield of ATP is that the intermediate compounds produced during cellular respiration may be shuttled off into other pathways to produce other things that the cell needs.
4. Overall about ___ percent of the energy available in a glucose molecule is used to produce ATP.

4.4 Fermentation

1. In aerobic respiration the final electron acceptor is  an ____________ molecule.
2. In the absence of oxygen aerobic respiration does not occur.

1. ________________ must be oxidized back into ______________ for glycolysis to continue. This process is called ___________________________.

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (used by animals and bacterial)

1. Write the equation for lactic acid fermentation on the line below.

1. __________________________ ↔ _________________________________
2. The enzyme that catalyzes this reversible reaction is called _______________________

1. Alcoholic Fermentation (used by plants, fungi and some bacteria)

1. Copy figure 4.17 into the box below:

1. Anaerobic Cellular Respiration (used by certain prokaryotes)

1. One type of prokaryote in the domain Archaea  can reduce ____________ into ____________ to regenerate ________________. This occurs in the absence of _____________.
2. Another group of prokaryotes reduce sulfate to ____________ _______________ to regenerate  _________ from NADH
3. Bacteria that can switch from aerobic respiration to fermentation are called _________________ ______________________________

4.5 Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways

1. Metabolic pathways are (open/ or closed) systems? Materials from one pathway may be used in a different pathway. The products of one pathway are reactants in another pathway.
2. True or False: The catabolism of other monosaccharides such as galactose or fructose will produce the same amount of ATP as the catabolism of glucose.
3. The polymer of glucose that is stored in liver and muscle cells is called _________________.
4. A disaccharide that is made from glucose and fructose is called _______________________.
5. Glucose and galactose are monosaccharides that produce the disaccharide ________________ which is a sugar found in milk.
6. True or False: Amino acids may also be shunted into the pathways of glucose metabolism.
7. The lipids _____________________ and __________________ are connected with glucose metabolism.

Go ahead and make your flashcards from the terms at the end of this chapter starting on page 113.