Critiques of Industrialization
Overview
Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 8, Lesson 2
A discussion of the harsh working conditions during the Industrial Revolution and the resulting calls for reform, focusing on the ideas of Karl Marx. It also details the improvements to working conditions by the mid-19th century.
Factory conditions were dangerous and unhealthy. Poor pay necessitated the entire family contributing to the household income, including children as young as seven or eight. These children endured long hours of labor, often alongside their parents, for meager wages. With little access to education and a limited understanding of life beyond the factory walls, their childhoods were sacrificed. The grueling conditions often resulted in long-term health problems and significantly shortened their lifespans, leaving many unable to enjoy a fulfilling life beyond their youth.
Facing up to 12 to 14 hours a day, usually six days a week, many workers lacked the energy and time for any other pursuits. Frequently, laborers toiled until they succumbed to illness or injury, or were cast aside when their productivity waned. Reduced to begging or petty crime for survival, they exemplified the system's callous disregard for human life.
Industrial by-products, waste from the tanneries, sewage and horse manure all mixed to make the cities a pungent and unhealthy place. The increase in population only worsened the problems as industrial workers lived in poorly constructed rowhouses that left little room for natural light. Given the poor pay, most families could only afford to rent a single room in a crowded house. Life was hard and unhealthy, and for many, there appeared little chance to escape.
The terrible conditions inspired demands for reform. One group, the socialists, wanted to replace the capitalist system with what they believed would be a more equitable distribution of property and profits. This, they argued, would lead to improvements in working conditions and pay. For instance, Frenchman Charles Fourier (1772-1837) called for the creation of self-sustaining industrial communities in which jobs were distributed based on temperament and ability. He believed the highest paid should be individuals who did dangerous or undesirable work. Robert Owen (1771- 1858) created new industrial communities dedicated to improving working conditions at New Lanark, Scotland, and Indiana, U.S.A., where he established New Harmony. While the success of these operations continues to be debated, Owen demonstrated, at least in Scotland, that one could run a successful business while better treating, paying and educating workers.
The most famous social reformer is the German academic Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx realized that a more equitable society could not be created as long as people subscribed to the notion of differentiated compensation. People who subscribe to this model are called capitalists and see money as the main reward for intelligence and hard work. Marx believed that genuine, long-lasting improvement could not be achieved until capitalism was destroyed.
Born in Germany in 1818 to a relatively prosperous family that held liberal and reformist views, Marx, in the 1840s, would meet his lifelong friend and supporter Friedrich Engels who had recently completed The History of the English Working Classes. Engels convinced Marx that the working class was the key to history. From this point forward, Marx dedicated his life to the working class and universal change.
The factory system encouraged Marx to consider the relationship between workers and capital, leading him to conclude that one of the most defining factors in an individual’s life is their relationship to the means of production. Marx determined that there were only two classes: those who owned the means of production, which he called the bourgeoisie, and those who did not and sold their labor, known as the proletariat. For Marx, this meant that you are either someone who exploits others by profiting off their labor or you are exploited; there is no middle ground.
Marx believed that all institutions in a capitalist society –government, media, religion and education–served the capitalist class’s interests. These institutions tried to keep the workers down and trick them into believing that their lives and labor were free when they were stripped of their individuality and ability to sell their labor freely.
Marx concluded that the history of the world had been largely shaped by two classes: those who own the means of production, and the workers. Marx argued that the movement of history from one historical era to another is based upon the conflict that occurs between these two groups. Marx believed that just as capitalism replaced feudalism, capitalism would be replaced by socialism. Eventually socialism would be replaced by a stateless, classless society known as communism. Communism would spread to every corner of the globe and would be the final step in human development. Marx stated that the end of capitalism would begin in the West as they had the most highly developed capitalist economies.
Marx believed that workers would eventually be pushed to a stage of near-total mechanization and automation, which would cause increasing dissatisfaction and help them realize that they are being manipulated in a rigged system. Developing what Marx called a class consciousness, the oppressed workers would “unite” to overthrow the bourgeoisie. This would be a violent process, as Marx believed that the capitalist class would not relinquish their privileged position without a fight.
Marx asserted that revolution was the only way to create a communist state. One could not elect a left-leaning or socialist government and expect to break the chains of capitalism. It did not matter whether you desired communism (Marx believed most workers would) or opposed it; the revolution was inevitable.
This violent revolution would give birth to socialism. In this new socialist state, ownership of the means of production would be collective. The fundamental goal of the state would not be to encourage personal profit but to improve the welfare of all workers who would share in society’s resources and wealth. But socialism, too, would give way. Eventually, socialism would be transformed into communism, an idealized state without the need for government, as all people would live in harmony. Since all members of society would relate to the means of production on equal footing, there would be no classes or division of labor as each person would contribute to the best of their abilities. There would be no specialization as specialization leads to the formation of hierarchy and class distinction. Communism would create an enduring classless society. There would be no more fundamental changes in the government for government itself would no longer be needed.
Karl Marx's ideas have profoundly shaped human history. Until the fall of the Soviet Union, over a third of the world's population lived under governments that claimed to be Marxist. However, it's crucial to distinguish between Marx's original philosophy and the often-violent and authoritarian regimes that emerged in his name. While some Marxist-inspired movements have led to positive social and economic change, others have resulted in authoritarianism, violence, and the suppression of individual freedoms. The 20th century witnessed numerous examples of regimes that, while claiming to be Marxist, deviated significantly from Marx's original vision. Marxism, at its core, provides a critical analysis of capitalism, exposing its inherent inequalities and the exploitation of workers. It offers a framework for understanding how power structures function and how social and economic systems can be transformed to create a more just and equitable society.
Workers’ calls for reform were eventually heard. Whether driven by humanitarian concerns, environmental considerations, or worries over national decline as men from the factory were judged too weak and unhealthy to go to war, fear of a worker-led revolution or other factors; eventually, politicians voted for reform. In 1833, the English Parliament passed the Factory Act, which made the minimum age for employment 9 years old and limited the working day for those children from 13 to 18 to 12-hour days. For children over nine but not yet 13, the workday was capped at eight hours. In the following decade, the work week for women and children would be limited to 58 hours.
Spotlight On | WORKER RUN NEWSPAPER
A worker-run newspaper published from 1845-1848, The Voice of Industry provides insights into the perspectives and opinions of actual workers during the height of the Industrial Revolution in America. Founded in Fitchburg, Massachusetts, the paper moved to Lowell, where it became associated with women workers, especially the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association, which many consider to be the first union for working women. The paper demonstrated the social and economic dislocation wrought by the factory system and how workers were now forced to sell their labor rather than, like in the past, sell the actual fruits of their labor. This seemed, to them, to undermine the American spirit of freedom and independence. Contributors worried that profit was beginning to shape all relationships and came to dominate, direct and define American politics. Many contributors understood that the factory system would not end and focused their energy and attention on improving workers’ lives. To this end, The Voice of Industry supported numerous initiatives, including improving working conditions, better pay, and limiting the workday to 10 hours.
The efforts of workers, reformers and politicians who wanted or accepted reform did pay dividends. Indeed, by the mid-19th century, standards of living were improving. Workers were healthier, ate better, and had better access to education and health care. Throughout Europe, cities began investing in clean drinking water, green spaces and parks, and underground sewage.
With less demanding hours and more free time, workers began to enjoy leisure time, which led to the explosion of sporting activities, a vast increase in sporting organizations, and the creation of professional sports teams and leagues. In England, The Football Association (1863) and The Rugby Football Union (1888) were both formed to manage the sports of football (soccer) and rugby. These organizations served as governing bodies, drafting rules and regulations for their particular sports. By the end of the century, the world would witness the rebirth of the Olympics, and in 1903, the first Tour de France would be ridden. In America, baseball grew in popularity as professional leagues were formed. By the 20th century, sports and sports culture had become big business and began shaping national pastimes and consciousness.