Readings
Overview
Memory is the process by which the human brain acquires, sorts, stores, retains, and retrieves information received and processed from the external environment. An important aspect of memory is effectively retaining and retrieving information once it is processed and stored. Understanding the concepts and components of memory, how memories are formed and processed, and why consciously and effectively mastering the process of memorization is fundamental.
Introduction
Memory is the process by which the human brain acquires, sorts, stores, retains, and retrieves information received and processed from the external environment. An important aspect of memory is effectively retaining and retrieving information once it is processed and stored. Understanding the concepts and components of memory, how memories are formed and processed, and why consciously and effectively mastering the process of memorization is fundamental. The ability to retain and recall information learned is imperative in classroom settings. Mastering the concept of memorization aids in academic and social development allows for ease of information recollection, which is imperative for overall brain health and wellness.
The historical concept of memory is the notion of experiences we have stored in our brains, and we can recall these experiences if we have not reached maximum brain capacity. However, decades of research in the fields of anatomy, physiology, neurobiology, and psychology have adjusted our notion of memories and how we sort, store, and retrieve them. In this chapter, we explore the basic concepts of memory, how information taken from the environment is processed and converted into useful information, and how converted information is moved into our short–term memory (STM) or long–term memory (LTM) banks.
Learning Objectives
- Define memory
- Understand memory and its processes
- Understand the importance of memorization for the college student
- Explore the anatomy of the human brain responsible for extracting, processing, and storing information
- Understand the physiology of information transfer
- Explore and understand the three different forms of memory
- Understand how memories are moved from STM to LTM
- Explore memory retrieval
- Discuss memory retention and ways to successfully store it in LTM
- Discuss concentration techniques and how to avoid distractions
- Understand and practice strategies for memorization.
- Examine the difference and pathways between memory retention and memory loss
What is Memory
Definition and Explanation
The true definition or notion of memory has been debated for decades (Zemach, 1968). One of the most recent and accepted definitions of memory (see Zlotnik & Vansintjan, 2019) is the capacity to store and retrieve information while incorporating biological or chemical processes together, thereby changing both in a permanent way. This may seem like a complicated definition for a process that is part of our daily lives. However, memory is an intuitive process that involves extracting information from the environment through our biological senses and storing the information for later use. A more simplistic definition of memory is the encoding, storage, and retrieval of an experience - or, simply put, a recollection of our past experiences (Madan, 2020).
Importance of Memorization for College Students
Learning and memory are tightly linked. This is because we must take information from the environment and convert it to a useful form, a process learned over time. Memory is important for college students and their success, specifically how to sharpen information intake for subsequent conversion, storage, and retrieval. Knowledge is central to learning (the two concepts are bound), and the ability to retain and extract memories is a lifetime learning experience (Bailey & Pransky, 2014).
References
Bailey, F. & Pransky, K. (2014). Why learn about memory. In A. G. Bennett & N. S. Rebello (Eds), Memory at work in the classroom: Strategies to help underachieving students (pp. 6–12). ASCD.
Madan, Christopher. 2020. Rethinking the definition of episodic memory. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale, 74:183–192.
Zemach, E. M. (1968). A definition of memory. Mind, 77(308), 526–536. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i339282
Zlotnik, G., & Vansintjan, A. (2019). Memory: An extended definition. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2523. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02523
Memory and Its Processes
Memory is the process of maintaining information over time (Matlin, 2005). Acquiring, sorting, and maintaining information involves three main processes or stages. First is our ability to gain information from the environment through sensory input. Second is our ability to preserve this information as memories. Third is our ability to recover these acquired memories. Central to this concept is our ability to learn the meaning of acquired information through personal or learned experiences and through sensory receptors. As information is learned from the environment, it is changed into a form we can understand before it can be stored. After the information has been stored into memories, retrieval becomes essential. For example, a large amount of information must be retrieved during an exam. Next, we discuss the three main processes of memory (see Figure 1): encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Figure 1. The three fundamental stages of memory: Encoding, storing, and retrieving information from sensory input.
Encoding. Information is taken from the environment through sensory mechanisms. Sensory mechanisms are the part of the nervous system responsible for processing environmental information. Next, this information is converted into an understandable form. This process is called encoding. Think of encoding information as if you were hitting the save button on your computer keyboard. Once this information has been “saved,” or encoded, it can essentially become retrievable at a later time. Encoding information does not happen in an instant. Several processes and pathways are involved. First, information from the environment is received through sensory input and certain structures (areas) within the brain. For example, when you are reading a book, the words you see (through visual input) must be converted into a notion or meaning unique to you. There are several ways in which information becomes encoded (McLeod, 2013) or changed into meaningful information: visual encoding, acoustic encoding, elaborative encoding, and sematic encoding.
Storage. Memory storage is the creation of a record of information. After information has been converted into a memory, it becomes stored. There are several variables to memory storage, including the duration of memories, where memories are stored, the kind of memories stored, and the capacity of memory storage. There are two main types of memory storage we discuss in later sections: STM and LTM. However, it is thought that the average adult can store between 5–9 memories at one time (Miller, 1956). This is also known as the 7 (+/- 2) concept of memory storage.
Retrieval. Memory retrieval is the process of getting information out of storage and using it in a meaningful way (i.e., information requested for an exam or quiz). There are three stores of memory: sensory memory, STM, and LTM. These concepts are discussed in detail in the section titled forms of memory. Learning how to memorize (or move information into long–term storage) is important. LTM is stored by association. During the sorting and storage phase, information is stored by associating the information with an experience.
Did You Know? Repeated bouts of jet lag may cause harm to the temporal lobe, an area of the brain important to memory, causing it to shrink in size and compromising memory. Also, the lack of quality sleep causes a significate brain deterioration and memory loss. |
References
Matlin, M. W. (2005). Cognition (6th ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
McLeod, S. A. (2007). Stages of memory – Encoding, storage, and retrieval. SimplyPsychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
Miller, G. 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. The Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
The Science of Memory
Recall that receiving, sorting, and encoding information for storage into memory banks is a process that takes information from the environment through sensory structures and sends the information via neural pathways to the brain for sorting and commitment into memory. In this section, we discuss parts of the brain responsible for memory storage, sorting emotional memories, and motor learning. We also outline the physiological steps of gaining information from the environment as well as how this information is sorted and encoded into our memory banks. Encoding information into memory banks, coupled with successful retrieval, is imperative for academic success.
Anatomy of the Human Brain
The anatomy of the human brain responsible for acquiring, processing, and storing information received from the external environment involves several components. In this section, we discuss the three main structures of the brain responsible for motor learning and for consolidating, enhancing, and storing memories: hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum.
Hippocampus. The hippocampus is the region of the brain responsible for regulating motivation, emotion, learning, and consolidating memories from STM to LTM (see Figure 2). The hippocampus is a small (paired structure) mass of densely packed neurons located deep within the temporal lobe of each cerebral cortex. It plays a major role in the formation of new memories via experienced events and declarative memory from facts and knowledge. When an event occurs, information is not automatically stored in LTM. Instead, the information is slowly assimilated and taken into LTM storage banks (Rubin et. al., 2014).
Figure 2. Paired Hippocampus. (Credit: "Hippocampus", Life Sciences Database, licensed CC-BY-SA 2.1 Japan)
Amygdala. The amygdala is the region of the brain responsible for enhancing the consolidation of emotional memories (see Figure 3). The amygdala is a paired almond–shaped structure located in the medial temporal lobe in front of the hippocampus. Its specific function is the consolidation of memories—that is, the strength at which emotional memories are encountered. The stronger the emotional memory (i.e., traumatic memories), the more enhanced the retention is of that stimulus.
Figure 3. Amygdala. (Credit: "Amygdala", Life Sciences Database, licensed CC-BY-SA 2.1 Japan)
Cerebellum. The cerebellum is the region of the brain responsible for learning procedural memories and motor learning, such as those that are routine and practiced (see Figure 4). Procedural memories include those such as riding a bike, playing a musical instrument, or driving a car. The cerebellum, also known as the little brain, is a small structure located in the back portion of the skull, just below the temporal and occipital lobes and behind the brainstem. This structure is also invested in motor learning (controlled movement).
Individuals who have experienced damage to the hippocampus might retain procedural memories, such as riding a bike or playing the piano, but may not remember specific facts about themselves or their life (Rubin et al., 2014). Likewise, those who have sustained damage to the cerebellum may retain emotional memories but would have trouble remembering how to ride a bike.
Figure 4. The Cerebellum. (Credit: "BodyParts3D", Life Sciences Database, licensed CC-BY-SA 2.1 Japan)
References
Rubin, R. D., Watson, P.D., Duff, M. C., &Cohen, N. J. (2014). The role of the hippocampus in flexible cognition and social behavior. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, Article 742. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00742
The Physiology of Memory or Memory Process
In this section, we discuss how memories are thought to be processed, stored, and distributed within neural networks of the brain. These processes are also known as encoding information, memory storage, and memory retrieval into conscious awareness. Again, this process is important for academic success because information taken from the classroom must be translated into a usable form (i.e., you must be able to understand it). Next, this information needs to be stored for you to successfully retrieve it. Think of this process as you are taking notes for class. First, do you understand what you are reading or hearing from your instructor? Next, how can you remember this information? Finally, will you be able to retrieve this information and relay it back on a quiz or exam?
Memories are processed, stored, and distributed within neural networks located throughout the brain (Mesulam, 1990). To form memories effectively, information received from the environment must occur through a process called encoding. Once information is encoded, it must be stored into memory for later retrieval. The retrieval process is the most difficult process to consider and allows for stored information to move into conscious awareness. Three main processes are involved in this system: encoding information, memory storage, and memory retrieval into conscious awareness.
References
Amin, H. U., & Malik, A. S. (2014). Memory retention and recall process. In N. Kamel & A. S. Malik (Eds.), EEG/ERP analysis: Methods and applications (pp. 201–237). CRC Press.
Bousfield, W. A. 1953. The occurrence of clustering in recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229-240.
Mesulam, M. (1990). Large-scale neurocognitive networks and distributed processing for attention, language, and memory. Annals of Neurology, 28, 597-613.
Encoding Information
Information is received through sensory input from the environment and must be labeled and changed or coded into a form the brain can use and store. This information is organized and stored alongside similar memories that already exist within our memory. We want to make certain important memories are properly encoded. To encode information properly and efficiently, it must be meaningful to us. Recall from the previous section that there are several ways in which information is encoded: sematic, visual, and acoustic.
Sematic encoding refers to the ability to encode words by their meaning. An example of sematic encoding is taking a list of words and memorizing them by lumping them into useful meanings. This was demonstrated in 1935 by Bousfield during an experiment in which a group of volunteers was asked to memorize a list of words grouped by meaning. Results from this experiment indicated volunteers could recall words divided into meaningful categories rather than words listed randomly.
Consider the list of words below. It would be difficult to memorize them if you had limited time to study and list them:
Apple | Grape |
Cat | Table |
Spinach | Milk |
Cup | Candle |
Paper | Pear |
However, if you simple reorganize the list in a more usable (relatable) way to you, chances of memorizing and recalling them will increase:
Apple | Cup |
Grape | Paper |
Spinach | Candle |
Pear | Cat |
Milk | Table |
This list has now been reorganized to reflect food items we commonly consume separated from items we may find in our homes.
Visual encoding is the ability to encode information through mental images we can create when attempting to memorize facts or words. In short, visual encoding is the way we map data into visual structures. It is much easier to memorize a list of words containing animals or familiar objects because they are considered “high imagery word,” and we can create a mental image of the object. Likewise, a list of words consisting of “low imagery” words (e.g., truth or value) are more difficult to encode and memorize because it is not possible to create an image. Have you ever visualized a concept in your mind’s eye? This is what visual encoding is.
Let’s take another look at the list of words from above we have reorganized. Again, it is relatively easy to remember a list of items we consume on a regular basis but a bit more difficult to memorize random items and things you might find in your home. To overcome this, simply tell yourself a story about your list of difficult words, and then visualize the story in your head. For example, to memorize the words on the right side of the table below, think of this scenario: “My cat jumped on my table, knocking over my coffee cup, candle, and dumping my papers all over the floor.” You are much more likely to remember this short scenario then attempting to memorize this list:
Apple | Cup |
Grape | Paper |
Spinach | Candle |
Pear | Cat |
Milk | Table |
Acoustic encoding refers to the encoding of sounds and words. An example of acoustic encoding is memorizing a song through rhyme or young children memorizing the alphabet through the familiar song.
Semantic encoding is taking new information and applying special (or personal) meaning to it to increase the likelihood of retention. For example, if you are required to memorize the date of a historical event, you may realize a close friend or family member may have a birthday to reflect that date, and those two events are now bound in your memory banks.
References
Bousfield, W. A. (1953). The occurrence of clustering in recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology, 49, 229-240.
Memory Storage and Retrieval
Memory Storage
Once acquired information has been encoded, it must be retained in sensory memory, STM, or LTM. Memory storage specifically refers to the nature of how memory is stored and how long it remains in storage: sensory, STM, or LTM (Amin & Malik, 2014). On average, most individuals can store between 5–9 items (7 +/- 2) in STM at one time because of limited capacity in this area. This has some very practical implications for incoming college students because if the process of getting information into LTM is not mastered, then you will only be capable of storing, on average, 5–9 pieces of information. The end result of this is the inability to retrieve information on quizzes and exams. Therefore, these memories are lost or must be moved into LTM stores. Likewise, LTMs are stored indefinitely and cannot be lost.
Memory Retrieval into Conscious Awareness
Memory retrieval into conscious awareness refers to getting information out of storage. LTM is stored and retrieved by association, whereas STM is retrieved sequentially.
Did You Know? Have you ever heard the expression “an elephant never forgets”? The origin of this idiom is meaningful, and many of us have heard it many times over our lifetimes. Elephants have a superior hippocampus compared to all other animals, including humans. In fact, the hippocampus of an elephant takes up 0.7% of their brain. The hippocampus of a dolphin in comparison only takes up 0.05% of their brain. |
References
Amin, H. U., & Malik, A. S. (2014). Memory retention and recall process. In N. Kamel & A. S. Malik (Eds.), EEG/ERP analysis: Methods and applications (pp. 201–237). CRC Press.
Stage Model of Memory
Memory is an essential function that allows for the acquisition, retention, and recollection of thoughts and events you have experienced. Experiences and their resulting memories are processed over several stages, and these stages represent the length of time memories are available for recollection (Paller & Wagner, 2002). Several models of memory have been proposed by scientists over the past several centuries. However, the most widely accepted model is the stage model of memory.
This model was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and includes three categories of memory: sensory memory, STM, and LTM. These three categories are dependent upon an individual’s personal experience in encountering and storing information for later use (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. The Three Main Stages of Memory. (Credit: "How Memory Functions", OpenStax College, licensed CC-BY 4.0 at http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6/How-Memory-Functions)
References
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation (2nd ed., pp. 89–195). Academic Press.
Paller, K., & Wagner, A. (2002). Observing the transformation of experiences into memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01845-3
Forms of Memory
There are several forms of memory supported by brain systems, including STM and LTM. These forms of memory are dependent on the individual’s experience in encountering and storing the memory (Paller & Wagner, 2002). Memory can be stored in a variety of ways. However, the three most commonly used ways are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory, the first stage of memory, includes memories processed from the environment through the five senses: sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell. This stage of memory gives the brain time to process the newly gained information. Information obtained through sensory memory is brief and lasts for only the amount of time it takes to process the information, typically less than 1 second. The temporal and occipital lobes of the brain are associated with sensations. Receptors associated with the five senses, or sensory receptors, receive information from the external environment and send it to the brain’s decision-making center. From there, this information is either lost or stored in STM or LTM. This is considered the earliest and briefest form of memory. It has limited storage capacity and can be considered the passageway for information into STM or LTM. Information processing begins in sensory memory, then eventually is moved into STM and sometimes LTM. There are three types of sensory memory, each one associated with a different type of sensory input: iconic memory, echoic memory, and haptic memory.
Iconic Memory. Iconic memories are memories associated with visual sensory. An example of iconic memories are visual images that retain mental representation. An example of how iconic memory techniques are useful in the classroom is taking a snapshot of information you are required to memorize and having the ability to retrieve that snapshot.
Echoic Memory. Echoic memories are memories associated with auditory sensory receptors. An example of echoic memories are extremely pleasant sounds (e.g., birds singing) or unpleasant sounds (e.g., a bullhorn) you have heard and cannot forget.
Haptic Memory. Haptic memories are memories associated with tactile (sense of touch) receptors. Haptic memories are typically unpleasant memories. For example, at a very young age, we all learned stove burners are hot. Most of us, as adults, test them with a quick touch or slap!
Short–Term Memory
STM, the second stage of memory, is responsible for holding information temporarily—that is, until the information is processed and sorted. STM is associated with very brief neural communications to regions of the prefrontal cortex of the brain. This type of memory is also known as primary or active memory and represents events and sensory data information an individual is currently thinking about or of which they are actively aware. This type of memory encompasses events ranging from about 20 seconds to a couple of days. Although STMs can be quickly forgotten, if these memories are revisited, then they can be transferred to LTM stores. The hippocampus is an essential brain structure responsible for the transformation of STM to LTM storage. An example of how STM works may be a situation in which a close friend introduces you to one of their friends. You may give them a quick greeting but then continue your conversation with your old friend. Chances are you will not remember the name of your “new friend” after a few minutes.
Long–Term Memory
LTM, the third stage of memory, represents information and knowledge held over an extended period (hours, days, months, or years). In addition, some of the information stored in LTM may be lost eventually, but some memories can stay with you for the duration of your life. LTM is important because information retained in college is carried with you through advanced degrees and even the workforce. This memory type is maintained by stable and permanent changes in neural connections spread throughout the brain. It is these connections that are lost to amylin plaques as we age, which is responsible for dementia and forgetfulness. We will discuss reasons for forgetfulness in the next section. There are two main types of LTM: explicit and implicit.
Explicit Memory. Explicit memories are consciously remembered, such as those gained by knowledge or experiences. Explicit memories can come from firsthand experiences you have had—for example, your first bike wreck (episodic memory) or implicit facts you know (how to add two numbers together).
Implicit Memory. Implicit memories are memories not readily available for conscious retrieval. For example, you will always remember how to walk or ride a bike, but you may not remember how to explain the process to others.
References
Paller, K., & Wagner, A. (2002). Observing the transformation of experiences into memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01845-3
The Movement of Memories From STM to LTM
To move information from your working STM to your LTM, you need to make the information meaningful (Passolunghi & Siegel, 2001). Meaningful learning is our goal; making connections between new information and what we already know helps us learn the information deeply, instead of just repeating it back to an instructor in class or on an exam. Information you received from the environment can move through the three stages of memory. This is not always the case though, because most information we receive, whether environmental information gained from sensory input or information gathered from academic experiences, are readily lost if the information is not consciously gathered and stored. The way you pay attention to the information is important. For example, you may enjoy some of your freshman courses and absorb the information given in class. Likewise, some classes may not be of interest to you, and it will become important to find ways to encode that information and move it into LTM. In short, if you consciously pay attention, or are interested in the information, then it will move to the next stage of memory—that is, STM (with the potential to move into LTM). However, if you subconsciously pay attention to memory and are not interested in the information, then it will stop processing at sensory memory and be forgotten.
Memory Retrieval
Information is passed from sensory memory to STM and held for a short period of time. Only a fraction of those memories, if processed mindfully, are encoded into LTMs. The encoding of this information allows you to assess the information and deem it important enough to hold on to for future retrieval. Memory retrieval refers to the ability to get information out of storage. If we cannot remember something, it is because we could not retrieve it. To improve your ability to store information in LTM and retrieve it, it is necessary to organize the information in a sequential or orderly fashion. In the next section, we discuss ways to organize memories and information for long–term storage and retrieval.
Did You Know? There are two ways you process information, whether in class listening to a lecture or holding a conversation with someone:
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References
Passolunghi, M. C. & Siegel, L.S. (2001). Short-term memory, working memory, and inhibitory control in children with difficulties in arithmetic problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80, 44-57.
Retention, Recall, and Retrieval
Recall that LTM represents information and knowledge held for extended periods or even indefinitely. This information is recalled through prompts of recognition from previous experiences or the conscious organization of information into LTM. Memory retention and retrieval are achieved through several avenues. In this section, we discuss the five main ways memories can be retained effectively: R3, attaching special meaning, lumping information, mnemonics, and visual memorization. Proper encoding facilitates memory retention, and the key to college success is the ability to recall or retrieve these retained memories. In this section, we also explore ways we can attach special meaning to information to achieve optimal memory retention and memory retrieval, thereby preventing memory loss (Amin & Malik, 2014).
Memory Retention
Memory retention is a person’s ability to keep information stored in LTM such that it can be readily retrieved in response to a prompt (Bennett & Rebello, 2012). Your success in college depends on your ability to recall this information when prompted. There are several techniques that will aid you in memory retention and retrieval: repetition, attach meaning, group information into useful categories, use mnemonics, and acrostics.
Repetition. Remember to read it, write it, and commit it to memory. Repetition in memory retention is one of the most powerful tools that affects retrieval (Hintzman, 1976) and is the most familiar form of information retention. Repetition is the process of consciously repeating information to oneself or someone else. This form of retention works well because, in the process of repetition, the brain builds new connections between the information being memorized and a previously understood idea (assimilation). An example of effective repetition in memorization is creating and using note cards to study for exams.
Attach Meaning. This technique allows you to remember important information by connecting it to something already known. Here is an example:
- Remembering the direction of longitude and latitude is easier to do when you realize lines on a globe that run north and south are long, which coincides with LONGitude.
- Another way to make a connection is to realize there is an N in LONGitude and an N in north. Latitude lines must run east to west then because there is no N in latitude.
Group Information Into Useful Categories. This is also known as the chunking strategy and is a useful technique that allows you to place information into categories that can be more easily memorized. An example of chunking is grouping historical events by era and memorizing each group separately.
Use Mnemonics. Another common method of encoding information into LTM is to give meaning to the information by applying some pattern to it. Mnemonics are another technique most of us learn and use at an early age, and they can remain instrumental in rapidly accessing information when prompted. Mnemonics are memory devices that help us recall pieces of information. There are many types of mnemonics, including music, expression, rhymes, acronyms, and acrostics. We will discuss a few of these here.
- Acronyms (also known as expression mnemonics) – This is one of the most popular types of mnemonics used in academia. Expression mnemonics are devices created by using the first letters of words to make a new word that will help you remember it. An example of using acronyms when studying for a quiz or exam is to create an expression using keywords from a list or paragraph that must be memorized.
- Music mnemonics – Music is second nature for most of us, and we have an impressive ability to remember lyrics to our favorite songs. The same method we use to recall song lyrics can also work to recall other types of information. Just use a song or jingle to your favorite type of music or a specific song to remember a list or series of facts you need to remember.
- Rhyming mnemonics are useful in that important information can be put into the form of a poem. A couple of examples are as follows:
- ♪ 30 days hath September, April, June, and November.
All the rest have 31
Except February my dear son.
It has 28 and that is fine
But in Leap Year it has 29 ♫ - or
♪ In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue ♫
- ♪ 30 days hath September, April, June, and November.
Acrostics. An acrostic is a mnemonic device made by creating a sentence using the first letters of key words in the items to remember. Here are a couple of examples:
- The order of operations in math problems (PEMDAS) can be remembered by the acrostic: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally,” or Parentheses, Exponents, Multiply, Divide, Add, and Subtract.
- ROY G. BIV is an acronym for colors of the spectrum (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet)
References
Amin, H. U., & Malik, A. S. (2014). Memory retention and recall process. In N. Kamel & A. S. Malik (Eds.), EEG/ERP analysis: Methods and applications (pp. 201–237). CRC Press.
Bennett, A. G., & Rebello, N. S. (2012). Retention and learning. In N. M. Seel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning (pp. 167–211). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_664
Hintzman, D. (1976). Repetition and memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 10, 47–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60464-8
Retention, Recall, and Retrieval
Memory Retrieval
Memory retrieval is the ability to get information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. Memory retrieval is important not only for everyday functioning but also for college success. There are several forms of memory retrieval: recall, recognition, and relearning.
Recall. Recall is the ability to access information without cues. Recall memories represent memories that have been encoded previously and are likely permanently embedded into memory banks. An example of recall learning is the ability to write cursive even after years of not using it.
Recognition. Recognition is the ability to access information through identifying with information that has been learned previously. An example of recognition memory retrieval is recognizing a correct answer on a multiple-choice exam.
Relearning. Relearning is the process of relearning information you have previously learned. Relearning is typically easier the second time because the information you are relearning is already stored somewhere in your memory banks.
Memory Loss
Memory loss (failure to retrieve LTMs) occurs in several different forms. It is a person’s inability to remember events permanently or over a period of time, most often due to brain injury (trauma), illness, or the effects of drugs and/or alcohol, lack of sleep, stress/depression, and aging. This section reviews several ways memories can be lost (or not encoded into LTM banks): ineffective coding, amnesia, and blunt trauma.
Ineffective coding. Ineffective coding is also considered an encoding failure. Encoding is the process of converting information received through sensory input to a usable, stored form of memory. Encoding failure prevents this information from entering LTM. In essence, it is the failure for that memory to link.
Amnesia. Amnesia, or amnestic syndrome, is the inability to recall some memories (e.g., facts, general information, and life experiences) and is often the result of damage to certain regions of the brain, including the hippocampus and temporal lobe. Amnesia affects STM and causes difficulties in retaining new information and past experiences.
Blunt Trauma. Blunt trauma to the brain caused by a head injury (e.g., shaken baby, concussion, intoxication) is a common cause of temporary or permanent memory loss.
Did You Know? An eidetic memory, what many refer to as a photographic memory, is a person’s ability to recall an object, photograph, or past scene in detail and with great accuracy for an extended period of time (30+ seconds). An autographic memory is a person’s ability to recall past events in great detail, including the exact date they occurred. Fewer than 100 people worldwide possess a higher superior autographic memory (HSAM). People with HSAM are not necessarily superior learns, but they are better at memory retention. |
References
Chapter Summary
Memory, the process in which we acquire, sort, retain, and then retrieve information, is tightly linked to learning. Information taken from the environment is converted into a useful form (i.e., active learning), stored, and then later retrieved. This is a process we use and fine–tune over the course of our lifetime. There are three main processes to memory: encoding (the uptake of information from the environment through sensory organs), storage (the creation of a record of learned information), and retrieval (the process of extracting information from storage and using it in a meaningful way). The structures of the brain instrumental to memory (amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebellum) are responsible for regulating and enhancing emotional memories, storing memories, and regulating procedural memories and motor learning, respectively.
There are several forms of memory supported by brain systems. The three most commonly studied and recognized are STM, LTM, and sensory memory. Sensory memory, as the name suggests, is the acquisition of information (that turn into memories) extracted from the environment through sensory mechanisms (i.e., sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell). STM is responsible for holding information temporarily and represents events and sensory data an individual is currently thinking about or of which they are vaguely aware. LTM represents information and knowledge held over an extended period (hours, days, months, or years). Information is stored into one of these memory systems according to the way the information was encountered and processed. However, getting information into LTM banks is especially important because information retained in college is carried and used throughout the course of your lifetime.
It is possible—and quite common—to move information from STM into LTM. However, to achieve this, information must be revisited and processed in a meaningful way. Meaningful learning, our ultimate goal, is the ability to make connections between new information and what we already know. This is not always the case though because most information we receive, whether environmental information or information gathered from academic experiences, is readily lost if the information is not consciously gathered and stored. The way you pay attention to the information is important. That is, if we consciously pay attention to information instead of subconsciously paying attention to information, memories are more likely to reach storage in LTM.
Memory retrieval is the ability to get information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. This concept is important not only for everyday functioning but also important for college success. Failure to retrieve LTMs leads to memory loss and is attributed to several factors, including brain injury, illness, negative effects of drugs and/or alcohol, lack of sleep, stress, and depression. The most critical factor influencing memory failure is time. With that, the most effective way to retain memories is rehearsal: take notes, attach meaning to the information you have noted, and then repeat the information.