Readings
Overview
In this chapter, we delve into what critical thinking is and why it is emphasized in college, briefly examine various branches of critical thought you will encounter in your college experience, and introduce you to various barriers that may keep you from engaging in the process.
Introduction
Just about every conversation contains a knowledge claim. This means you will be asked to accept, believe, take action on, or purchase something based on the words someone conveys. From opinions during passing conversations, social media posts, the pulpit, advertisements, to pronouncements in the college classroom, you will entertain many assertions throughout your life. Some of these claims and decisions will barely affect you, and others will have lifelong ramifications. You may choose which pizza delivery business to order from or which presidential candidate to vote for. Depending on the situation, you may put forth a lot of energy investigating a claim, or very little. You may even accept some claims without question. Why might this investment be so variable? Ultimately, the evaluation of knowledge claims takes time, energy, and critical thought, which are all limited resources.
Simply investing time and energy evaluating a claim does not guarantee clarity, objectivity, nor the “right” answer. Your judgment and life experiences can help or hinder the process as well. What is more, humans have a tendency to rely on biases and use partial thinking. Critical thought, however, can afford you greater clarity, the ability to investigate assumptions, and the ability to account for bias. The development of critical thought takes guided practice, reflection, and time. Thankfully, if students are open to it, such practice can be afforded with a college education.
In general, critical thinking is the evaluation of claims. The way in which claims are evaluated can vary depending on the goal of the endeavor. We can evaluate the supporting information and structure of a claim to see if everything adds up like an equation. We may also evaluate the source of the claim, the claimant’s motivations, or even societal consequences. Both ends of this spectrum, from logical to sociocultural, constitute critical thought and belong to the same proverbial tree. Each branch of critical thought is differentially emphasized and valued by different fields of study or occupation.
Learning Objectives
In this chapter, we delve into what critical thinking is and why it is emphasized in college, briefly examine various branches of critical thought you will encounter in your college experience, and introduce you to various barriers that may keep you from engaging in the process.
The student will:
- consider the need for critical thinking;
- explore the various definitions, or branches, of critical thought;
- reflect on the barriers to engaging in critical thought; and
- prepare a plan of action using critical thought.
The Need for Critical Thought
We, the authors of this digital text, assert critical thinking is important. This in and of itself is a knowledge claim. We want you, the reader, to entertain this argument. We want you to think it too, to the point that you not only accept it but also engage in the process of improving your own critical thinking. One of the primary goals of higher education is to improve students’ critical thinking (Bok, 2006; Facione et al., 1995; van Gelder, 2005). This is no easy task. Engaging in this journey of practice and reflection, to better evaluate claims, takes time and energy (van Gelder, 2005). Large–scale improvements do not typically occur overnight and rarely in a single semester or from a single course (Hubern & Kuncel, 2016). Significant improvement in critical thinking does occur, on average, by the end of a typical 4-year degree (Harris, et al., 2014; Hubern & Kuncel, 2016). So why do it? Why might university instructors invest so much time in relaying these skills? In short, instructors invest in relaying these skills because your ability to think critically affects us all. Your decisions affect society at large. Critical thought is highly valued by future employers as well. It can enable you to self-advocate, guard against exploitation, and, given your educational goals, afford you with great power and privilege.
With the ever-increasing cost of a college degree, students and their families are more concerned with obtaining a return on their educational investment. Many colleges have addressed this concern by focusing on employability measures, graduate job placement, and advising students to major in careers with higher salaries. Such a pragmatic approach makes sense, as unabated student loan debt can greatly inhibit a graduate’s ability to own a home and accumulate wealth. Data comparing employees with and without college degrees are quite staggering as well. We have all seen statistics showing college graduates are more likely to obtain employment, earn higher wages, and have greater job satisfaction (Joubert, 2020). This is not by coincidence. A piece to this puzzle lies in graduates’ ability to critically think. In 2013, the American Association of Colleges and Universities (AACU, 2013) conducted a national survey of businesses and nonprofit leaders to discern what they value in college–educated new hires. Nearly all employers surveyed valued critical thinking, communication, and problem solving skills (AACU, 2013). The valuation of this quality appears to have persisted. A more recent study by the National Association of Colleges and Employers (2019) found critical thinking to be one of the main competencies associated with career readiness. An ability to think critically not only makes you more employable, it enables you to survive and thrive outside of the workplace as well.
Brookfield (2012) argued critical thinking is imperative to survival; without it, an individual could not self-advocate nor recognize when they are being manipulated. Critical thinking helps a person arrive at more sound decisions and construct stronger arguments. Critical thinking can aid a person in evaluating important life decisions. Take for instance the recommendation to buy or lease a vehicle, to own or rent a home, or to participate in a particular cancer treatment. Critical thought is not just an academic endeavor. It is not solely used to pass the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), design a well–constructed research project, or construct a perfectly worded essay. It is part of life.
| Mini Activity 1 |
What are three consequential claims/problems you might encounter outside the classroom? Please choose three claims/problems you would put forth the extra effort to analyze (e.g., choosing a part-time job while in school, choosing to purchase student health insurance). Why do you consider these claims / problems important for deeper analysis? |
A college degree affords graduates with a measure of power and privilege as well. For instance, college-educated individuals appear to be less affected and recover more quickly from economic downturns, such as the 2000 recessions and job loss due to the coronavirus (Pew Charitable Trusts, 2013; Vilsack, 2020; Whistle, 2020). College students will also become the next generation of leaders and changemakers. Researchers at Tufts University found college–educated individuals are more likely to vote and engage in politics (Hugo Lopez et al., 2005). In a very real way, knowledge is power. What you do with it is up to you. We want you to have the tools (e.g., critical thinking skills) to think through the very important decisions you will make.
References
Bok, D. (2006). Our underachieving colleges: A candid Look at how much students learn and why they should be learning more. Princeton University Press.
Association of American Colleges and Universities. (2013, April 10). Employers more interested in critical thinking and problem solving than college major [Press release]. https://www.aacu.org/press/press-releases/employers-more-interested-critical-thinking-and-problem-solving-college-major
Brookfield, S. (2012). Teaching for critical thinking: Tools and techniques to help students question their assumptions. Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Facione, P. A., Sánchez, C. A., Facione N. C., & Gainen, J. (1995). The disposition toward critical thinking. Journal of General Education, 44(1), 1–25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27797240
Harris, K., Stein, B., Haynes, A., Lisic, E., & Leming, K. (2014). Identifying courses that improve students’ critical thinking skills using the CAT instrument: A case study. Proceedings of the 10th Annual International Joint Conferences on Computer, Information, System Sciences, and Engineering, 10, 1–4.
Huber, C. R., & Kuncel, N. R. (2016). Does college teach critical thinking? A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 431–468. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315605917
Hugo Lopez, M., Kirby, E., Sagoff, J., & Kolaczkowski, J. (2005, July). Electoral engagement among non-college attending youth. The Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement. https://circle.tufts.edu/sites/default/files/2019-12/FS_ElectoralEngagementNonCollegeYouth_2005.pdf
Joubert, S. (2020, January 09). 10 benefits of having a college degree. Northeastern University. https://www.northeastern.edu/bachelors-completion/news/is-a-bachelors-degree-worth-it/
Pew Charitable Trusts. (2013, January). How much protection does a college degree afford? The impact of the recession on recent college graduates [Report]. https://www.pewtrusts.org/~/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/pcs_assets/2013/pewcollegegradsrecessionreportpdf.pdf
van Gelder, T. (2005). Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science. College Teaching, 53(1), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.3200/CTCH.53.1.41-48
Vilsack, R. (2020, July 9). Workers without a college degree are disproportionately impacted by COVID-19 job losses. National Skills Coalition. https://www.nationalskillscoalition.org/blog/higher-education/workforce-update-workers-without-a-college-degree-are-disproportionately-impacted-by-covid-19-job-losses/
Whistle, W. (2020, December 16). College graduates are less likely to become unemployed due to the coronavirus. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wesleywhistle/2020/04/17/college-graduates-are-less-likely-to-become-unemployed-due-to-the-coronavirus/
Definition of Critical Thinking
Defining critical thinking is not easy. If you asked your instructors to define it, you would likely hear a different definition from each. There are many reasons for this. Largely, it is due to the fact that each of your instructors likely practices a specific branch of critical thinking. Some may have even earned advanced degrees in using these skills but did not delve into the philosophy and nuance of defining it. Defining such a term is also not something educators are generally asked to do. It is important to note that critical thinking is a field unto itself. A diverse array of researchers and experts in the field of critical thinking convened over a 10–year period to create a consensus definition of critical thinking (Facione, 2015).
They defined critical thinking as “the process of purposeful, self-regulatory judgment. This process gives reasoned consideration to evidence, context, conceptualizations, methods, and criteria” (Facione, 1990, p. 5). It is both a skill and a disposition. This means you can learn how to engage in critical thinking, and it is something in which you will choose to engage, or not, depending on the situation. There are great debates on whether or not problem solving should be included in the definition, if creativity is an integral component, and if and how we should measure critical thinking. Like any topic, there are aspects we have yet to detail, argue over, and uncover. The experts, for instance, have not definitively agreed critical thinking is transferable from one context or problem to another.
It is still hotly debated whether a person can learn to critically think in one area and then transfer those same skills in a new, unrelated context or problem. For instance, will learning to critically evaluate medical claims in a biology course help students critically evaluate political ideologies in a political science course? There is some evidence to support transferability, though it appears to be a difficult task (van Gelder, 2005).
References
Facione, P. A., Sánchez, C. A., Facione N. C., & Gainen, J. (1995). The disposition toward critical thinking. Journal of General Education, 44(1), 1–25. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27797240
Facione, P.A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. American Philosophical Society, Newark, DE. Retrieved https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED315423.pdf
van Gelder, T. (2005). Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science. College Teaching, 53(1), 41–46. https://doi.org/10.3200/CTCH.53.1.41-48
Branches of Critical Thinking
Although transferability is difficult, it appears to be possible. A college education requires students complete a selection of general/introductory coursework from various disciplines. In these courses, students can garner basic knowledge and, more importantly, practice critical thinking with experts in various fields. Students may also take generalist critical thinking courses, typically as a philosophy elective, as part of their common core requirements. These generalist courses provide students with the ability to delve into the process of critical thinking. The diversity of your common core courses, generalist critical thinking courses, and upper level courses will certainly afford you the opportunity to experience and hone the use of various branches of critical thinking.
A branch of critical thinking you may practice in some of your college courses involves the structure of an argument. Arguments typically consist of two types of claims: supporting claims and concluding claims. Some terms that typically indicate a supporting claim, or premise, include “since,” “because,” “for,” and “assuming.” Supporting claims, also called premises, are used to support a concluding claim, or conclusion. Some terms that typically indicate concluding claims, or conclusions, are “thus,” “hence,” and “therefore.”
Example: | I am a human, and humans are mortal (will die); therefore, one day, I will die. | Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion |
There are various types of arguments, each with their own uses. Some are definitive in nature, and others relay degrees of reason. Evaluating the veracity of premises and their alignment with the conclusion is part of most fields but of particular interest in the fields of philosophy, law, and the natural sciences. Occasionally, a person may use illogical but emotionally or psychologically appealing methods of persuasion. These are called logical fallacies (i.e., hasty generalization, appeal to tradition, false cause).
"Five Fallacies" by PBS Idea Channel, PBS Digital Studios,
located at https://youtu.be/8qb-h0sXkH4
Many fields of study value the critical analysis of the sociocultural and political elements of a claim or problem. This overarching branch, or ideology, is called critical theory. At large, the goal of this type of analysis is to evaluate assumptions and power structures to make society more democratic. There are many specializations of critical theory, each focusing on a particular lens of analysis or view. In your studies, you may be asked to analyze a claim (or problem) using one or more of the following lenses: classism, globalism, feminism, genderism, racism, colorism, and more. You might encounter this form of critical analysis in your sociology, education, or history classes. You may even practice analyzing scenarios or historical events using different political or philosophical lenses. Remember, we do not all have the same lived experiences. Working with others who are different from us can help us uncover hidden truths, improve our insight into a given topic, and help us make more informed decisions. This can occur both inside and outside the classroom.
We have many facets to our identity. We are not singularly our race, gender, or country of origin. Each facet makes the whole. You may even explore the interplay of identities and experiences through the lens of intersectionality. Universities can be culturally diverse places. Paradoxically, attending a large university can sometimes feel alienating. Finding your friend groups and exploring your identity can be difficult, especially if you do not see yourself represented or are used to a more homogenous learning environment. It is important to explore the various student groups and support services your university has to offer. Make it a point to befriend individuals unlike yourself as well. Expand your worldview. For many, college is the one place to meet people easily from different backgrounds and with different identities. Doing so can only serve to expand your ability to think critically, empathize with others, and gain insight into how others live, learn, and think.
Attributions
"Five Fallacies" by PBS Idea Channel, PBS Digital Studios, located at https://youtu.be/88qb-h0sXkH4
Cognitive Dissonance
Critical thinking requires a degree of self-awareness and the ability to suspend judgment. You may find yourself evaluating a claim that aligns with your own values, beliefs, or motives. It can be difficult to objectively evaluate claims tied to aspects of your identity or values. You could have unconscious biases that blind you from fully engaging in critical analysis. Your own experiences may run counter to larger trends or findings. Although there are many barriers to critical thinking, we will briefly outline two of the most common: cognitive dissonance and bias.
Cognitive Dissonance. Cognitive dissonance is when a person holds inconsistent ideas at the same time. These ideas can be simple thoughts, attitudes, or deeply held beliefs. Holding contradictory ideas at the same time usually causes discomfort. Individuals typically attempt to reduce their dissonance to alleviate this discomfort. They can do so by:
- changing their mind,
- acquiring information that outweighs the conflicting idea, or
- Reducing the importance of the idea that is contradictory.
"Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A Crash Course" by Andy Luttrell,
located at https://youtu.be/9Y17YaZRRvY
Mini Activity 2 |
Think of a time you (or someone close to you) purchased, used, and/or potentially sold a product that promised extraordinary results (e.g., weight loss made easy, get rich quick). These products are often expensive and lack sound supporting arguments. Many times, when we invest in a product such as these, we ignore the negative and/or lacking elements of the claim. We seek out only positive, confirming information on them (e.g., positive testimonials, before and after pictures). We do not take into account the negative side effects, the lack of peer–reviewed literature, the company’s business model, and the expertise of the salespeople or claimants selling the product. Think about your (or close friend/family member’s) experience. How did you (they) handle this dissonance? Did you (they) ignore the contradictory information or confront it directly? What type of investigation did you (they) do when purchasing the product, if any? |
Attributions
"Cognitive Dissonance Theory: A Crash Course" by Andy Luttrell, located at https://youtu.be/9Y17YaZRRvY
Bias
Bias is a preference for or against a particular thing, idea, person, or group. A bias can be conscious or unconscious, meaning you may or may not be aware of your preferences. They are often learned but can also be the product of your brain making a shortcut. Everyone is susceptible to bias. It is part of the human condition.
"Understanding unconscious bias" by The Royal Society,
located at https://youtu.be/dVp9Z5k0dEE
The following example may seem a bit odd at first, but provides a great example of how unconscious bias can affect decision making and daily life. Several cities in Sweden and Canada enacted diversity and bias analyses of their policies and budgets (Cossette, 2018; Schmitt et al., 2018). To some, it was unclear how such analyses would affect seemingly mundane aspects of city governance and spending. Snow plowing, for example, is a regular and pretty normal part of life in Ottawa, Canada. How might bias and critical analysis factor into such an everyday decision? Snow does not have a gender, and everyone drives on the streets. To many, conducting the analysis did not seem like a fruitful endeavor. The mayor decided to include women in the analysis of city snow plowing, an endeavor largely managed and conducted by men. What they discovered was the city and snowplow team prioritized larger streets over sidewalks and side streets. Sidewalks were plowed last. Men in this city were more likely to drive to work, and women were more likely to walk. Children were also affected in that schools and daycares were largely situated on side streets and accessed via foot traffic. Pedestrians had nowhere to walk while the larger streets were being plowed. The prioritization of the larger streets being plowed first was a prioritization of vehicular traffic and, by extension, men. This was not done intentionally, of course—it is just the way it had always been done. It was a product of unconscious bias. By analyzing the order in which streets and sidewalks were cleared, they discovered the city could increase foot traffic (reducing carbon emissions—another city priority), improve pedestrian safety, improve public transport, and enable families to get to school and daycare on time. Such an analysis is not without its critics, but the analysis certainly created a dialogue and set of actions the city could take to shift priorities. Similar projects and analyses have also occurred in Sweden.
Bias is part of the human experience. We all must check our assumptions and work with others to make more informed decisions. Unfortunately, you cannot completely eliminate bias from your thinking. You can, however, engage in the lifelong process of the reflection, analysis, and collaboration it takes to identify it. Self-awareness is integral to critical thinking and decision making.
Attributions
"Understanding unconscious bias" by The Royal Society, located at https://youtu.be/dVp9Z5k0dEE
Chapter Summary
You are, and continually will be, bombarded with knowledge claims. The evaluation of these claims takes time, energy, and critical thought. It may not be an endeavor you wish to use for every decision, but your college experiences and education will provide you with the ability to make that choice. When you choose to engage in critical thought is a decision only you can make. The ability, however, is one that can help you self-advocate, gain privilege and power, and provide you with the tools to work with others not like yourself. It is difficult to ignore the barriers to critical thought and self–deception once you discover the mirror and magnifying properties of the process. It is difficult to avoid self-reflection, inquiry, and collaboration.
In this chapter, we explored what critical thinking is, why it is emphasized in college, and how it truly matters outside the classroom. We briefly examined various branches of critical thought encountered during a college experience and explored a few barriers to this process. You are just starting your journey. How meaningfully you engage in the process is up to you.