6.3 Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
6.4 Plants and Symbolism
6.5 The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
6_The-Social-Spiritual-and-Cultural-Importance-of-Plants
In Defense of Plants
Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World
Smithsonian: National Museum of the American Indian
UNESCO: Día de los Muertos
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants
Overview
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input.
Introduction
Lesson Objectives
Describe the social, spiritual, and cultural importance of plants to historical and contemporary communities of people.
Give specifics of how different cultures incorporate plants into their lives.
Key Terms
cultural keystone species – the culturally significant species that shape in a major way the cultural identity of a people, as reflected in the fundamental roles these species have in diet, materials, medicine, and/or spiritual practice
Introduction
Humans depend on plants for food, medicine, and ecosystem services, as well as our mental and physical health. Throughout human history, there are many examples of human cultures that have also assigned special social, spiritual, and symbolic value to plants. As a result, people plant and cultivate species that have special meaning to their lives and communities work to preserve the ecosystems where these culturally important plants are found.
Ann. Garibaldi and Dr. Nancy. Turner termed plants “cultural keystone species” and described them in their article “Cultural Keystone Species: Implications for Conservation and Restoration”:
The species that play these special cultural roles vary widely from one region to another and from one culture to another. In general, however, the species most closely associated with indigenous and local peoples, wherever they reside, are the ones they depend upon most extensively to meet their needs for food, clothing, shelter, fuel, medicine, and other necessities of life. These are the species that become embedded in a people's cultural traditions and narratives, their ceremonies, dances, songs, and discourse. These are also the species for which a people will have developed the most detailed names and associated vocabulary, and the ones on which they focus in their immediate activities and conversations.
This lesson will highlight a selection of stories, ceremonies, and individual species that demonstrate the social, spiritual, and cultural importance that plants have historically played in human societies.
Spiritual Importance of Plants
There are countless examples of plants being used in religious and other spiritual ceremonies. For example, aromatic plants are often used to create fragrant incense and oils that are important for religious ceremonies (Dafni et al., 2020). Many religions include descriptions of plants in their writings and oral traditions. One common motif across various religions and cultures is the creation story, where the creation of life on earth is described; naturally, plants feature prominently in many such stories. The following is a selection of creation tales from across the globe.
North America: The Cherokee Story of Earth Making
The Cherokee believed that water covered everything in the beginning. Living creatures lived above a rainbow in the heavens. Conditions were crowded, and the creatures wanted to move below to where the water was. A water beetle dove into the water and came up from the depths with some mud. The mud spread over the water, but it was too soft to live on. Next, a buzzard flew over the mud, and the flapping of its wings dried the earth and created valleys and mountains (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984). A great spirit made plants and animals. But before making humans, the spirit directed the plants and animals to stay awake for 7 days. Of the animals, only the owl and mountain lion were able to stay awake. Of the plants, only cedar, pine, laurel, and holly stayed awake the entire seven days. These plants were rewarded by being made evergreen, which meant they could keep their foliage through the winter (Erodes & Ortiz, 1984).
The Cherokee also have a creation story involving Star Woman. They believe that Star Woman lived with her family in the heavens, when she fell through a hole below a tree in her father’s garden. As she was falling through the air toward the water below, a turtle came up to make a space for her to land. Similar to the previous story, water spider (or muskrat) brought some mud up from below the water and spread it over the turtle’s shell, but the mud was too soft to live on. A buzzard flew over the mud to dry it, and this land became the earth. When Star Woman landed, her body produced corn, beans, squash, and other plants, and her tears became rivers. Star Woman brought the spark of consciousness to the earth and became the mother of all humans (Ywahoo, & Du Bois, 1987). Similar accounts of Star Woman or Sky Woman appear in many creation stories of indigenous North American people (Kimmerer, 2020).
Central America: The Mayan Creation Story
The Popol Vuh, or “Book of the Community,” of the K’iche’ Maya is the story of Maya creation. In this story, divine beings wanted to create human beings with hearts and minds who could “keep the days” (Smithsonian, n.d.). The deities attempted to create humans to praise them from mud, but the mud people were destroyed because they were not beautiful. Next, beings were created from the pith of reeds, but they were destroyed because they lacked compassion and gratitude. Beings were then made from the sun’s energy, but they were destroyed because of their intelligence—because they believed they were equal to the gods. Last, humans were made from baskets of yellow and white corn. The corn was ground and mixed with water and shaped into people (Kimmerer, 2020); the people of the corn were true and enduring humans (Figure 9.6.1) (Smithsonian, n.d.).
Africa: The Wakaranga Story of How the Moon Fathered the Earth
The Wakaranga people are from the area known as Zimbabwe today. Their creation story begins with God creating a man that he called “Moon”. Moon lived at the bottom of the sea, but he wished to live on the earth. When Moon came to the earth, he found it was empty, without and plants or animals. When Moon wept, God sent him Morningstar as a wife. Morningstar gave birth to all the plants, which spread out and covered the earth. The first part of the story ends with Moon and Morningstar living a life of plenty in their green paradise (Beier, 1966).
The Middle East: The Biblical Account of the Garden of Eden
The Bible of the Christian religion and the Tanakh of Judaism begin with a description of the earth as “formless and empty” with the Spirit of God hovering over the water. Over six days, the creator separated light and darkness, as well as water, sky, and land; then God created vegetation, the sun, the moon, and the stars, as well as living creatures and human beings. The Quran of Islam has a similar description of creation by Allah over six days, including the creation of water, the heavens and the earth, life from the water, the sun and the moon, and human beings.
The Tanakh, the Bible, and the Quran each include similar accounts of the first man, Adam, and first woman, Eve, who lived in a garden paradise. According to the Biblical account, their only instruction was to not eat from the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil or they would die. After temptation from a serpent, Adam and Eve tasted the forbidden fruit and were cast out of the garden (Figure 9.6.2). God told Adam, “cursed is the ground for thy sake; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life” (Genesis 3:17, King James Version).
Asia: The Chinese Legend of P'an Ku
P’an Ku (also written Pangu) is the first human in the Chinese Daoist legend of creation (Figure 9.6.3). Heaven and Earth had been comingled like an egg. According to the story, this egg-like mass split apart, and Heaven, Earth, and P’an Ku grew in size over the following 18,000 years (Kramer, 1961). P’an Ku created the world: his tears became the Yangste River, his breath made the wind, and his eyes were the sun and the moon. When P’an Ku died, his body broke into five pieces and formed China’s five sacred mountains: the Ti, Sung, Heng, Heng, and Hua mountains. P’an Ku’s hair became the earth’s vegetation (Franz, 1995).
Social and Cultural Importance of Plants
Ceremonies are markers for important milestones including birth, graduation, marriage, and death. Throughout human history, plants have been an important element in each these ceremonies. This section will explore how a variety of cultures have incorporated plants into commemorative ceremonies for their departed loved ones, a tradition that continues across much of the world today.
Shanidar Neanderthal
Laying flowers and plants in memory of a deceased loved one has been a common practice for much of human history, as well as for human’s close relatives the Neanderthals. Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) were widespread across Europe and Western Asia for a long time, starting about 400,000 years ago (Gibbons, 2015), before they were replaced by or assimilated by modern humans (Homo sapiens). In fact, studies show that many groups of humans share about 2% of their DNA with Neanderthals. These genes are associated with hair and skin color, height, sleeping patterns, and other traits (Dannemann & Kelso, 2017).
In 1950s, researchers began to excavate and study the remains of several Neanderthals found in the Shanidar cave in Iraq (Figure 9.6.4). The remains are believed to be 60,000 years old. Three of the skeletons (two male adults and one infant) were believed to have been buried by their community, while four seem to have died in a partial cave collapse (Lee, 2007).
Botanists who specialize in the study of pollen examined the soil that was collected from around the buried human remains and found samples that contained pollen from flowering species of plants including yarrow (Achillea spp.), hollyhock (Althaea rosea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and grape hyacinth (Muscari spp.) (Figure 9.6.5), as well as from the evergreen Ephedra. The locations where the pollen was found suggest the possibility that these flowers were arranged, possibly as a wreath, around the body, and perhaps the deceased was laid on a cushion of the evergreen branches of Ephedra (Lee, 2007). If this were true, this may be the earliest evidence of flowers used in a burial.
Neolithic China
Since 6,000 BCE, ornate burials in Neolithic China have incorporated the red mineral cinnabar (mercury sulfide) as a part of the burial ceremony. The brilliant red cinnabar was spread on the body and below the coffin during the burials of high-status deceased. Excavations of burials dated to somewhere between 2,200 BCE and 1,800 BCE suggest that plants were also a part of traditional burials for some regions.
Researchers analyzing remains at the Shengedaliang site found that leaves of plants from the borage family (Boraginaceae) were spread in layers along with cinnabar (Wu et al., 2016). Scientists did not identify the exact species of the leaves used in the burial, but they were able to identify the family as Boraginaceae. Plants in this family are valued for their medicinal and ornamental characteristics, and species include common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis), cucumber herb (Trigonotis peduncularis), and several other blue flowering herbs such as Eritrichium rupestre, Lithospermum zollingeri, and Microula sikkimensis (Wu et al., 2016). They proposed the following explanation for why leaves were featured in these ancient burials:
Leaves symbolize life in many modern human societies. Leaves of species are used to symbolize various aspects of human life, e.g. love, joy, loyalty, fertility and sympathy from birth to death at religious and social occasions such as funerals or weddings (Heilmeye, 2001). The presence of “special” leaves fossil also may indicate the strong sense of life in the otherwise desert environment that made people to treat leaves differently as a sign of energy and life and may also be an additional indicator of social inequality. Thus, the association with leaves fossil from a member of the Boraginaceae family may indicate a type of “plant worship.” (Wu et al., 2016)
Tutankhamen's Tomb
Many readers will already know that wealthy ancient Egyptians had lavishly decorated tombs. Of all such ornate burials, one of the most well-known examples is that of the pharaoh Tutankhamen, or “King Tut”, who ruled from 1336 to 1327 BCE. Botanical imagery was used throughout Tutankhamen’s tomb, including motifs of lotus flowers (Nymphaea lotus), papyrus reeds (Cyperus papyrus), and mandrake fruit (Mandragora officinarum). The mummified body of Tutankhamen was decorated with a wreath of olive leaves (Olea europaea), cornflower (Centaurea spp.), and lotus petals. The inner coffin included a floral collar arranged in nine rows, featuring date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), pomegranate leaves (Punica granatum), and ashwagandha berries (Withania somnifera). Another wreath of cornflowers, water lily petals (Nymphaea caerulea), olive leaves and wild celery was wrapped around the second coffin.
Mexico and Central America
While not a burial as with the other examples, el Día de los Muertos or Day of the Dead has been celebrated in Mexico and other Latin American countries for 3,000 years. The ceremony began during the time of the Aztecs, when the goddess Mictecacihuatl was believed to allow spirits to return to commune with living family members. This ceremony was also practiced by the Maya and Toltec (Anderson, 2016). With the arrival of the Spanish and the spread of Catholicism in the 16th century, the ritual was blended with All Saints Day. This ceremony coincides with the end of the maize harvest at the beginning of November (UNESCO, 2008).
Marigold (Tagetes spp.), Tillandsia spp., arum lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica), and cockscomb (Celosia spp.) are some of the species placed at the graves or used for flower altars that families build for their deceased loved ones Toltec (Anderson, 2016). While each of these plants has brilliant-colored flowers or foliage, marigold (also called cempasuchil in Central America) is especially fragrant. Families believe that the bright colors and strong fragrance of these blooms will lead their loved ones home, which is why altars are often heavily decorated with marigold flowers and petals (UNESCO, 2008).
Plants and Symbolism
Human cultures throughout history have assigned symbolic meaning to many species of plants. This symbolism may be derived from the uses of the plants or from observation of characteristics of the species. This section will highlight some of the symbolic meanings given to a small selection of plants from a few regions of the world.
North America
- Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana): renewal of life, blessing and thanksgiving, love and happiness, good luck (Native, n.d.c)
- Sweet grass (Heirochloe odorata): healing, peace, and spirituality (Native, n.d.d)
- Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.): relaxation, healing, and peace (Native, n.d.f)
- White pine (Pinus strobus): longevity, wisdom, harmony with nature, peace (Native, n.d.b)
- Western red cedar (Thuja plicata): generosity and providence (Native, n.d.a) sacred, a gift from the creator (Garibaldi & Turner, 2004)
Middle East and Mediterranean Region
- Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus): life and fertility, tenderness, fidelity, and reliability (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009d)
- Lily (Lilium candidum): youth, innocence, power, love, glory (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009b)
- Myrtle (Myrtus communis): immortality, eternity, regrowth and vitality, authority, beauty, youth, and victory (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Blue water lily (Nymphea caerulea): eternal life, revival, reanimation (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009a)
- Basil (Ocimum basilicum): love, mourning (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Rose (Rosa spp.): spring, love, beauty, charm, transitory state (Kandeler & Ullrich, 2009c)
- Rosmary (Rosmarinus officinalis): faithful remembrance, love and fidelity (Dafni et al., 2020)
- Greek sage (Salvia fruticose): purity, justice (Dafni et al., 2020)
East Asia
- Japanese maple (Acer palmatum): changed feelings (Seaton, 1995)
- Chrysanthemum or kiku (Chrysanthemum spp.): longevity, endurance, resilience, integrity (Saddhono et a., 2014), cheerfulness under adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera): purity, truth, perfection, immortality (Seaton, 1995)
- Peony (Paeonia spp.): brightness, prosperity (Seaton, 1995)
- Bamboo (Phyllostachys spp.): power, nobility, purity, honesty, solemnity, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), modesty (Seaton, 1995)
- Japanese Black Pine (Pinus thunbergiana): longevity, luck, diligence, endurance (Saddhono et a., 2014), friendship in adversity (Seaton, 1995)
- Plum or ume (Prunus mume): new hope, longevity (Saddhono et a., 2014), perseverance, virtue, sweetness
- Cherry blossoms (Prunus serrulata): coolness, serenity, happiness, the ephemeral nature of life (Saddhono et a., 2014), loyalty, patriotism, a life lived joyfully (Seaton, 1995), celebrated with annual hanami (hana means “flower” and mi is “to look) flower viewing parties
- Wisteria (Wisteria floribunda, W. sinensis): luck (Saddhono et a., 2014), youth (Seaton, 1995)
The Social, Spiritual, and Cultural Importance of Plants in the Future
Plants have played a crucial role in the social and spiritual aspects of cultures throughout human history. These traditional ceremonies and beliefs have linked people to the larger environments and ecosystems they inhabit. People conserve and protect what they care about, and culturally, this care is often reflected in ceremonies and traditions. Ecologist, author, and member of the Potawatomi Nation Dr. Robin Wall Kimmerer proposes an explanation for this in her book Braiding Sweetgrass:
Many Indigenous traditions still recognize the place of ceremony and often focus their celebrations on other species and events in the cycle of the seasons. In a colonist society the ceremonies that endure are not about land; they’re about family and culture, values that are transportable from the old country. Ceremonies for the land no doubt existed there, but it seems they did not survive emigration in any substantial way. I think there is wisdom in regenerating them here, as a means to form bonds with this land (Kimmerer, 2020).
The phenomena of “plant blindness” could undermine humanity’s connection with plant life. The term plant blindness was coined by researchers Dr. James H. Wandersee and Dr. Elisabeth E. Schussler (1999) to describe “(a) the inability to see or notice the plants in one’s own environment; (b) the inability to recognize the importance of plants in the biosphere and in human affairs; (c) the inability to appreciate the aesthetic and unique biological features of the life forms belonging to the Plant Kingdom; and (d) the misguided, anthropocentric ranking of plants as inferior to animals and thus, as unworthy of human consideration.” Learning more about the plants in our home landscapes, taking the time to explore the natural world, visiting a local public garden, and learning about the processes of plant sciences in courses such as this one are all good first steps to develop a deeper appreciation for plant life.
Dig Deeper
To learn more about traditional beliefs about the natural world, check out Family of Earth and Sky: Indigenous Tales of Nature from Around the World.
Learn more about the plants and animals on your next nature walk. Join the Discover Life in America in their citizen science efforts to document biodiversity in East Tennessee and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. To learn more, watch the video below or visit the Discover Life in America website.
Robin Wall Kimmerer is a mother, scientist, decorated professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation. She is the author of Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge and the Teaching of Plants and Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. She lives in Syracuse, New York, where she is a SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor of Environmental Biology, and the founder and director of the Center for Native Peoples and the Environment. In this video from The Commons at the University of Kansas, Robin takes us on a guided nature tour of Clark Reservation State Park in Jamesville, NY as Spring welcomes back migrating creatures and sends a message to wake up those who have taken a Winter rest.
Exploring your local public garden is a great way to learn more about the incredible diversity of plants that grow in your area and across the world. To find your closest botanical garden, check out the American Public Gardens Association map
You don’t need to visit a national park of botanic garden to learn more about plants. In this video from In Defense of Plants, host Matt introduces many plants commonly found in suburban environments. To learn more about In Defense of Plants, visit the In Defense of Plants website.
Attribution and References
Attribution
Title image: "Himeji Castle Hanami - Himeji, Japan" by inefekt69 is marked with CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.
References
Beier. (1966). The origin of life and death: African creation myths. Heinemann.
“Creation story of the Maya”. (n.d.). Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian. Retrieved 17 March 2022 from https://maya.nmai.si.edu/the-maya/creation-story-maya
Dannemann, M. & Kelso, J. (2017). The Contribution of Neanderthals to Phenotypic Variation in Modern Humans. American Journal of Human Genetics, 101(4), 578–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2017.09.010
Erdoes, R. & Ortiz, A. (1984). American Indian myths and legends (1st ed.). Pantheon Books.
Franz, M.L. von. (1995). Creation myths (Rev. ed.). Shambhala.
Garibaldi, & Turner, N. (2004). Cultural keystone species: implications for ecological conservation and restoration. Ecology and Society, 9(3), 1–. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00669-090301
Gibbons, J. (2015). Why did Neanderthals go extinct? Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from https://www.si.edu/stories/why-did-neanderthals-go-extinct
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JULY: Lotus. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(9), 2461–2464. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp166
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: JUNE: Lilies. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(7), 1893–1895. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp088
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: OCTOBER: Roses. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(13), 3611–3613. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp215
Kandeler, R. & Ullrich, W. R. (2009). Symbolism of plants: examples from European-Mediterranean culture presented with biology and history of art: SEPTEMBER: Cornflower. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60(12), 3297–3299. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp247
Kimmerer, R.W. (2020). Braiding sweetgrass: indigenous wisdom, scientific knowledge, and the teachings of plants. Milkweed Editions.
King James Bible. (1994). Zondervan. (Original work published 1769).
Kramer, S.N. (1961). Mythologies of the ancient world. (1st ed.]). Doubleday.
Lee, D. (2007). Nature’s palette: the science of plant color. University of Chicago Press.
Native American cedar mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-cedar.htm
Native American pine tree mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/pine-tree.htm
Native American strawberry mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-strawberry.htm
Native American sweetgrass mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-sweetgrass.htm
Native American tobacco mythology. (n.d.). Native Languages of the Americas. Retrieved 22 March 2022 from http://www.native-languages.org/legends-tobacco.htm
Saddhono, K., Widodo, S.T., Al0Makmun, M.T. & Tozu, Masakatsu. (2014). The study of philosophical meaning of batik and kimono motifs to foster collaborative creative industry. Asian Social Science, 10(9): 52-61.
Seaton, B. (1995). The language of flowers: a history. University Press of Virginia.
UNESCO. (2008). Indigenous festivity dedicated to the dead. Retrieved 21 March 2022 from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indigenous-festivity-dedicated-to-the-dead-00054
Ywahoo, D. & Du Bois, B. (1987). Voices of our ancestors: Cherokee teachings from the wisdom fire (1st ed.). Shambhala.
Wandersee, J.H. & Schussler, E. E. (1999). Preventing Plant Blindness. The American Biology Teacher, 61(2), 82–86. https://doi.org/10.2307/4450624