The Historical Background of the Reformation
Overview
The Historical Background of the Reformation
Europe by 1500 was ripe for sweeping religious reforms at the close of the Medieval period and the dawn of the modern era.
Learning Objectives
- Identify the primary factors from the late medieval period that led to the Reformation.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Black Plague: an epidemic disease carried by fleas that killed millions across Europe beginning in the 14th century
Little Ice Age: a period of cold and long winters that impacted the world from the mid-13th century through mid-15th century
Humanists: Renaissance artists and writers who collected and modeled their works on the artwork and writings of ancient Greek and Roman artists and writers
Europe in 1500: General Overview
The Reformation developed as a religious movement in a period of intense social anxiety in Europe due to rapid social and economic change. In this time of stress and worry, people often turned to their faith for comfort and support. One cause of anxiety was the fear of a horrific death from disease. The Black Plague or Bubonic Plague first struck Europe in 1348, but this disease continued to strike down the population periodically in the centuries that followed. Infestations of fleas on rats and livestock carried this disease from Central Asia and across Europe. By 1500 and over the next century, another source of anxiety was economic and social insecurity.
Beginning around 1450, Europe began experiencing a warming climate, which lasted until the end of the 16th century. This period of rising temperatures brought temporary relief to Europeans, who had been living in a Little Ice Age prior to 1450. The rising temperatures of the period 1450 to 1600 resulted in longer growing seasons for crops—such as wheat and larger harvests, which resulted in population growth. People with access to a plentiful supply of food were well nourished and less likely to die from hunger or epidemic diseases, which is more likely to affect people who are malnourished.
As the population grew, demand for goods also expanded with the corresponding growth of markets. The introduction of vast amounts of precious metals (silver and gold) into Europe in the later 16th century, after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca Empires in the Western Hemisphere, accelerated the growth of the market economy. People with coins of silver and gold in hand were ready and eager to purchase goods on the market. This economic expansion allowed inventive entrepreneurs the opportunity to amass large fortunes. The acquisition of such fortunes, however, stirred up social unrest and economic fears when those possessing this newfound wealth were non-noble commoners.
Less successful commoners and the elite nobility viewed these entrepreneurs as greedy, pretentious men, who had forgotten their proper place in the hierarchical social order, which traditionally drew a sharp distinction between the aristocratic landowning elite and the mass of common people. Society did not expect commoners to serve in positions of leadership or to engage in elite activities such as wearing fine clothes or riding in a horse drawn carriage or entertaining guests with a feast of meat and wine. These were positions and activities reserved for the elite nobility. Non-nobles with money who engaged in such activities were a dire threat to the social order. It is perhaps not a coincidence that the leading Protestant reformers, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, and John Calvin were commoners. Luther’s father was a miner, Zwingli’s was a peasant, and Calvin’s was an account clerk. The parents of all these reformers sacrificed and saved to send their children to a university, where they could receive an education and afterwards raise their social status through service in the church or government. In contrast, one of the leading Catholic reformers, Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuit Order, was a Spanish nobleman who was a soldier and knight prior to entering the ministry.
The Roman Catholic Church in 1500
As people across Europe turned to their faith in this period of anxiety, they were often disappointed with the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church. During the preceding Medieval period and especially after 1000 CE, the Catholic Church in Western and Central Europe had developed into a centralized, hierarchical organization under the leadership of the Popes based in Rome. The Pope was Christ's representative or vicar on earth, and the Pope's power in the church was unchecked. According to the doctrines of the church, the Pope also possessed authority over all the Christian rulers of Christendom, the body of all Christians. In the 15th century, the Pope was not merely a spiritual leader, but he also ruled directly over a large section of Central Italy known as the Papal States. These Popes, therefore, often obtained their position because of their administrative and political skills, and not necessarily due to their spiritual gifts and piety. The Popes of this period were often very worldly men and far from model Christians. For example, Rodrigo Borgia or Pope Alexander VI (r. 1492 – 1503) was infamous for his elaborate, wild parties and for his beautiful mistress. He also used his power as Pope to advance the interests of his family through his efforts to carve out a principality for his illegitimate son, the ruthless and violent Cesare Borgia. The conduct and worldly reputation of such Popes shocked and disgusted Christians across Europe, who wanted to reform the church and end its corruption.
The Italian Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance provided reform-minded Christians with the tools to demand church reform. The Renaissance was a "rebirth" of the art and literature of Classical Greece and Rome, which arose originally in the Italian city-states of North Italy in the 14th and 15th century. Renaissance artists and writers modeled their works on the artwork and writings of ancient Greek and Roman artists and writers. Renaissance Humanists collected ancient works of art and manuscripts as sources of inspiration. Around 1350, the Italian poet, Petrarch first began to search out and assemble ancient texts and became the "Father of the Humanists." The conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 by the Ottoman Turks resulted in the migration of Byzantine scholars to Italy, who brought ancient Greek manuscripts with them. 1453 was also the year in which the first printed book, the Gutenberg Bible was published in Germany. The invention of the printing press allowed for the mass publication and circulation of the ancient works that Humanists had collected. Humanists not only collected ancient manuscripts; they also maintained that the study of ancient Greek and Roman mathematics, philosophy, rhetoric, and poetry would promote human excellence and virtue. The advancement of literacy and education that resulted from the Renaissance provided Europeans who wanted to reform the church with the intellectual skills to question the doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church. Moreover, due to the work of the Humanists the works of early Christian writers who wrote in ancient Latin and Greek were now in circulation. As more educated Christians read the works of these early Christian writers, such as Saint Augustine (c. 400 CE), they contrasted the corrupt church of their own day with the ancient Christian Church, which provided a model for church reform.
The Reformation and Society
The historical study of the Reformation often focuses on the leading thinkers of this era and the ideas that they espoused, but in this period millions of Europeans, both men and women, either enthusiastically embraced the church reforms advocated by Protestants or passionately defended the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church. The spread of reform would not have been possible without the work of many women, who have remained largely anonymous. For example, Katharina von Bora, was a former nun, who married the Protestant German reformer, Martin Luther. She operated a farm and a brewery to support her husband’s work as a teacher and author, while also running a hospital. On the other hand, Teresa of Avila was a Spanish nun and noblewomen of the 16th century who inspired Roman Catholics with her writings on prayer and mystical faith during the Catholic Reformation.
The ideas of Protestant reformers and loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church also appealed to large segments of the population across different parts of Europe who were experiencing economic hardship. For example, Martin Luther’s stress on the equality of all Christians before God caused peasant farmers across Germany to wonder why their aristocratic landlords controlled their local churches and imposed heavy rents and fees on them. In 1524, peasants across Germany revolted against their landlords in the Peasant's Rebellion. By 1525, the rebellion was over after aristocratic armies massacred over 30,000 men, women, and children. Luther condemned the rebels; equality among Christians, according to Luther, was a spiritual state only and impossible in a sinful, material world. John of Leiden in the Netherlands was a tailor, who became an Anabaptist travelling preacher. In 1532, he began preaching in the German city of Munster. He convinced the city's poor residents to expel the Roman Catholic Bishop from the city. John became the new leader of the city and demanded that the city residents all share their wealth with one another equally. He also rejected the idea of traditional marriage and insisted that all residents were all married to one another in common. Eventually John declared that he himself was Jesus Christ. He had a special gold crown made for himself and he demanded the people worship him as God. In 1534, the exiled Bishop raised an army and overthrew John's regime in Munster.
The appeal of Roman Catholicism and the Protestant churches varied from region to region, often depending on the culture of a region. In the Netherlands, for example, the Dutch speaking, rural areas embraced the Protestant faith; whereas, the more city-based Flemish and Walloon speaking areas remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church. Northern Germany with its large trading cities converted to the Protestant faith; whereas, rural, Southern Germany remained Roman Catholic. Paris, the royal French capital, was a Roman Catholic stronghold, while large areas in the south of France converted to Protestantism. In Poland, the German-speaking residents of the cities were Protestants, but the ethnic Poles in the countryside were Roman Catholic. While the British Isles became mostly a Protestant region, pockets remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church: northern England, the Scottish Highlands, and most of Ireland.
Attributions
Title Image
"Dance of Death" Schedel, Hartmann, 1493 - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0