American Imperialism
Overview
American Imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries
In the 1890s and early 1900s, the United States established its own brand of imperialism. Territories were acquired, and intervention in neighboring countries was undertaken to protect American interests. Although the United States never established colonies as the Western Europeans did, it undeniably had a large sphere of influence in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which was mainly established by military intervention.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate American imperialism.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
American imperialism: American economic, military, and cultural influence on countries
Monroe Doctrine: American foreign policy that warned Europeans not to further colonize in the New World
Reconcentration camps: deplorable camps established for Cuban civilians by the Spanish in 1896 – 1897
Spanish-American War: a small military conflict between fought between Spain and the United States in Cuba, and in the Pacific in 1898
U.S.S. Maine: an American naval vessel that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898
yellow journalism: sensationalist news that uses bold headlines and bright images
Philippine-American War: war fought between the Filipinos and the United States for control of the Philippines (1899 – 1902)
Emilio Aguinaldo: leader of the Filipino forces against the Americans in the Philippine-American War
1898 Treaty of Paris: treaty that ended the Spanish-American War and gave the United States the right to annex the Philippines from Spain
Open Door Policy: American policy that declared China should be kept free and open to trade among all Western powers
Banana Wars: small military actions throughout the Caribbean and Central America in which the United States sent military troops to protect their interests in bananas, tobacco, sugar, and other goods
United Fruit Company: major American corporation that traded in tropical fruit
Standard Fruit Company: major company established for the trade in tropical fruit, particularly in Honduras
Roosevelt Corollary: piece of legislation created by Teddy Roosevelt that established American right to monitor, and possibly intervene, in situations of unrest in the western hemisphere
Panama Canal: fifty-mile canal cut across the isthmus of Panama that linked Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
American Imperialism: Background
American imperialism is a term that refers to the economic, military, and cultural influence of the United States on other countries. It first was used during the presidency of James K. Polk in the 1840s. While the United States never had colonies as their Western European counterparts did, they did accrue spheres of influence—regions around the world that were affected directly by American politics.
During the 1880s, industrialization caused American businessmen to seek new international markets in which to sell their goods. In addition, the increasing influence of social Darwinism led to the belief that the United States was inherently responsible for bringing concepts such as industry, democracy, and Christianity to less developed “savage” societies. The combination of these attitudes and other factors led the United States toward imperialism.
American imperialism is partly rooted in American exceptionalism—the idea that the United States is different from other countries due to its specific world mission to spread liberty and democracy. This theory often is traced back to the writing of 1800s French observer Alexis de Tocqueville, who concluded that the United States was a unique nation “proceeding along a path to which no limit can be perceived.”
The Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy regarding domination of the Americas in 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued in 1823 at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved, or were at the point of gaining, independence from the Portuguese and Spanish Empires.
The intent and impact of the Monroe Doctrine persisted with only minor variations for more than a century. Its stated objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and avoid situations that could make the New World a battleground for the Old World powers, so that the United States could freely exert its own influence, undisturbed by other powers. The doctrine asserted that the New World and the Old World were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence, for they were composed of entirely separate and independent nations.
Inherent in the Monroe Doctrine are the themes of American exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny—two ideas that refer to the right of the United States to exert its influence over the rest of the world. Under these conditions, the Monroe Doctrine was used to justify American intervention abroad multiple times throughout the nineteenth century, most notably in the Spanish-American War and with the annexation of Hawaii.
The Annexation of Hawaii
During the “Age of American Imperialism,” the United States exerted political, social, and economic control over countries such as the Philippines, Cuba, and China. One of the most notable examples of American imperialism in this age was the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, which allowed the United States to gain possession and control of all ports, buildings, harbors, military equipment, and public property that had formally belonged to the Government of the Hawaiian Islands. On January 17, 1893, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, was deposed in a coup d’état led largely by American citizens who were opposed to Liliuokalani’s attempt to establish a new Constitution. This action eventually resulted in Hawaii’s becoming America’s 50th state in 1959.
The Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War was a four-month-long conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States. It was the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain’s Pacific possessions led to U.S. involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine-American War.
Background
Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans. With the abolition of slavery in 1886, former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class, many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and the number of sugar mills declined. Moreover, human rights abuses were rampant.
Outmatched militarily by Spain, the Cuban fighters were forced to use hit and run tactics to attack their enemies. In response, Spain appointed Valeriano Weyler as Governor General of Cuba with the intent of crushing the rebellion. From 1886 to 1887, Weyler launched a plan to round-up civilians in the countryside and force them into reconcentration camps near cities. This way, they would be able to distinguish their enemies easier, and separate them from their livelihoods. Theoretically, Weyler wanted the civilians to survive to avoid permanently running relationships with the Cuban people. However, over 100,000 Cuban civilians perished in these camps due to malnutrition, disease, and starvation.
To win public support for the Cubans, American journalists produced numerous articles highlighting the brutality of the Spanish toward the prisoners inside the camps. Increasingly, public opinion in the United States pushed for intervention in Cuba because of the human suffering. When, however, the American government sent ships to Cuba it was done in order to show force and protect American interests more than protect the Cuban people.
Although it remained Spanish territory politically, Cuba started to depend on the United States economically. Only companies and the most powerful plantation owners remained in business, and during this period, U.S. financial capital began flowing into the country.
The Sinking of the U.S.S. Maine
In the name of “protecting” Cuba, and American interests, the United States sent one of their battleships to Cuba as a show of force against the Spanish presence. In the early hours of February 15, 1898, an event happened which would change the course of American diplomacy. Moored in Havana Harbor in Cuba, the U.S.S. Maine suddenly exploded with extraordinary violence. Roughly two-thirds of the crew were killed.
Outrage over the event exploded in the United States. Newspapers portrayed the event in vivid, color images, and bold headlines. Without awaiting an investigation, papers reported that the attack that claimed over two-hundred American sailors was directly perpetrated by the Spanish—which serves as a fine example of yellow journalism. War hawks turned out in all corners of American society and beseeched President McKinley to declare war on Spain. “Remember the Maine!” became the popular rallying point for war. To date, the cause of the Maine’s explosion is debated. While most Americans asserted that a Spanish water mine had set-off the explosion, scholars have since claimed that the Maine could have exploded through a spontaneous fire caused by off gassing inside its hull.
Regardless of the true cause of the explosion, by April, McKinley caved under public, bipartisan pressure. The United States sent an ultimatum to Spain that demanded it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which the Spanish rejected; the Spanish were well-aware of their declining status in world affairs and reluctant to abandon their colonial possessions. As McKinley tried to negotiate, Spain declared war on the United States. Immediately following the declaration, the United States declared war on Spain. Although Spain’s military was decidedly in poor, declining shape, the military of the United States seemed also underdeveloped. At the time of the war declaration, the United States had only seven battleships and a standing army of around 30,000 troops.
The War
The Spanish-American War was swift and decisive on both land and sea. And owing to Spain’s colony, the Philippines, it was fought in Cuban and in the Pacific.
Under Admiral George Dewey, a small American naval fleet sailed to the Philippines, which was then a Spanish colony. On May 1 in Manila Bay near the Philippines, the Spanish and American navies engaged one another. The result was nearly instant. The Spanish fleet could not withstand the, by comparison, heavily armed American gunboats and cruisers. The Spanish fleet was destroyed with scarcely an American casualty. Thus, Spain’s rule in the Philippines and in the Pacific was effectively over.
On land, future president Teddy Roosevelt made history with his famous charge up San Juan Hill outside of Santiago, Cuba. The Spanish troops were heavily dug into the hill and armed with advanced, German-manufactured rifles. To weaken the Spanish resistance, Teddy Roosevelt ordered a unit of Buffalo Soldiers—African American troops—to charge up the hill first. These soldiers encountered the brunt of the fighting and sustained heavy casualties, but also inflicted heavy casualties. Later, Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders followed, effectively dislodging and defeating the Spanish troops. The Spanish army units and spirited defenses in places such as San Juan Hill.
Legacy of the Spanish-American War
The immediate result of the war was the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Its terms gave America temporary control of Cuba, as well indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines following their purchase from Spain.
The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. Spain had been declining as an imperial power since the early nineteenth century because of Napoleon’s invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco, and the Canary Islands.
The Philippine-American War
The Philippine-American War (1899 – 1902), was a war between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. Even though it is frequently overlooked in U.S. History, it was very significant at the time because of its length and high casualties on both sides.
When the Americans defeated the Spanish at Manila Bay in 1898, the Filipinos cheered. They believed they would finally be free of colonial rule and allowed independence. A temporary, democratic government was formed by their leader, Emilio Aguinaldo. However, when the United States made it clear that they would not allow the Filipinos to self-govern, and moreover that it would annex the Philippines, war erupted between the two sides. On one side, Americans hammered the Filipinos with the use of far superior military weaponry. In response, the Filipinos employed guerilla warfare to strike at the Americans at opportune moments.
The war was noted for its exceptional brutality. Atrocities occurred on both sides. American troops showed little mercy to civilians, including women, children, and elderly. Villages were burned. And in retaliation, the Filipinos would frequently torture American prisoners of war through mutilation and live burials. Although resistance to American presence continued throughout the early 1900s, the Philippine-American War ended officially in 1902.
The Open Door Policy
The “Open Door Policy” is a U.S. doctrine established in 1899 and the early twentieth century, by Secretary of State, John Hay. The policy proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, keeping any one power from total control of the country. In practice, the policy had little legal standing; it was mainly used to mediate competing interests of the colonial powers without much meaningful input from the Chinese. This policy would also galvanize American intervention in China during the Boxer Rebellion.
The Banana Wars
The Banana Wars were a series of occupations, police actions, and interventions involving the United States in Central America and the Caribbean. This period of conflict started with the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the subsequent Treaty of Paris, which gave the United States control of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Thereafter, the United States conducted military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. The series of conflicts ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Reasons for these conflicts were varied but were largely economic in nature. The conflict was called the “Banana Wars” because of the connections between U.S. interventions and the preservation of American commercial interests in the region.
The United Fruit Company, the predecessor of the modern-day Chiquita Fruit Company, had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and various other products throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America. The United States also was advancing its political interests, maintaining a sphere of influence and controlling the Panama Canal, which it had recently built and was critically important to global trade and naval power.
Honduras and American Fruit Companies
Honduras, where the United Fruit Company and Standard Fruit Company dominated the country’s key banana export sector, saw the insertion of American troops repeatedly through the early 1900s. In fact, American involvement in Honduran affairs became so extensive that American author, O. Henry, coined the term “banana republic” in 1904 to describe Honduras.
"Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick": Teddy Roosevelt and the Panama Canal
American President Theodore Roosevelt was brash, bold, and committed to participating in foreign affairs. Famously, he said of his foreign diplomacy that the United States must “speak softly and carry a big stick.” He was invested in seeing the United States become a global actor. As such, he established an addition to the Monroe Doctrine called the Roosevelt Corollary. In this document, Roosevelt established that the United States had the right to monitor, and intervene, if necessary, in situations of political unrest in the western hemisphere. As former Secretary of the Navy, Roosevelt was captivated by naval matters. Above all, he was fixated on the idea of developing a fifty-mile canal across Panama that would link Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
In 1903, Panama was in turmoil. Panamanians, tired of being under Colombian rule, started a revolution. When President Roosevelt learned of the news, he struck an off-the-tables deal with the Panamanians. The U.S. would send its navy to the Panamanian coast, effectively preventing Colombia from sending ships, and helping Panama to achieve its independence. In exchange, Panama would grant the United States territory for the canal. Following the peace treaty with Spain that granted Panama’s independence, the United States sent labor forces to start construction on the canal.
Construction of the canal began in 1904 and proved arduous. Americans relied heavily on immigrants and minorities for much of the labor. Yellow Fever and malaria hounded the workers for two years and slowed the construction of the canal. Before the diseases were brought under control, they had claimed over 5,000 lives.
In 1914, the Panama Canal was finally opened. The two oceans were connected, shortening travel and shipment of goods forever. It was a remarkable achievement. It also established the precedent of intervention in Latin American affairs when American interests were at stake.
Long-term Impact
The late 1800s and early 1900s marked the start of American imperialism. Although considered a second-rate power by many of its Western European counterparts, the United States quickly proved it was a military and political powerhouse. Intervention in other countries, especially countries in Latin America set a precedent that would explode during the Cold War.
Attributions
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons
Boundless US History, “American Imperialism”
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/american-imperialism/