Middle East Between the World Wars
Overview
Overview
In the aftermath of the First World War the Middle East experienced nationalism, decolonization, and religious strife. These peoples challenged the priorities and values of the Allied Powers in their crafting of peace treaties. Those treaties instead of stabilizing the Middle East left uncertainty and continued instability. During the interwar period new nations emerged, each trying to find its place in the diverse complex of ethnic groups and religions. As part of this process of nation building the principle imperial powers, Britain and France, had to negotiate a new path for their imperial interests in a period of accelerating decolonization.
Ataturk and Turkish Independence
The occupation of the Ottoman Empire by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish national movement under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. This led to the Turkish War of Independence, which resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.
Learning Objectives
Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Mustafa Kemal: a Turkish army officer, revolutionary, and founder of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first President from 1923 until his death in 1938; instituted a series of political, legal, religious, cultural, social, and economic policy changes that were designed to convert the new Republic of Turkey into a secular, modern nation-state; eventually came to be known as Ataturk
Background: Allied Occupation of Ottoman Empire
For the Ottoman Empire the fighting of World War I ended on October 30, 1918, with the Armistice of Mudros signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies; this brought hostilities in the Middle Eastern theater to a close. This armistice granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, as well as the right to occupy any territory in case of a threat to security. On November 13, 1918, a French brigade entered the city to begin the Occupation of Constantinople and its immediate dependencies, followed by a fleet consisting of British, French, Italian, and Greek ships deploying soldiers on the ground the next day. A wave of seizures by the Allies took place in the following months.
Turkish National Movement
The occupation of parts of the old Ottoman empire by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement. The Movement was united around the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the authority of the Grand National Assembly set up in Ankara, which pursued the Turkish War of Independence. The Movement supported a progressively defined political ideology generally termed “Kemalism.” Kemalism called for the creation of a republic to represent the electorate, secular administration (laïcité) of that government, Turkish nationalism, a mixed economy with state participation in many sectors (as opposed to state socialism), and other forms of economic, political, social, and technological modernization.
Turkish War of Independence
Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, a military commander who distinguished himself during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign, the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The war began after some parts of Turkey were occupied and partitioned following the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I. The War (May 19, 1919 – July 24, 1923) was fought between the Turkish nationalists and the proxies of the Allies—namely Greece on the Western front, Armenia on the Eastern, and France on the Southern, along with the United Kingdom and Italy in Constantinople (now Istanbul). Few of the present British, French, and Italian troops were deployed or engaged in combat.
After a series of battles during the Greco-Turkish war, the Greek army advanced as far as the Sakarya River, just eighty kilometers west of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (GNA). On August 5, 1921, Mustafa Kemal was promoted to commander in chief of the forces by the GNA. The ensuing Battle of Sakarya was fought from August 23 to September 13, 1921, and it ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, on September 19, 1921, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was given the rank of Mareşal and the title of Gazi by the Grand National Assembly.
The Allies, ignoring the extent of Kemal’s successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Ankara, but the proposal was rejected. In August 1922, Kemal launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines at Afyonkarahisar in the Battle of Dumlupınar, and Turkish forces regained control of Smyrna on September 9, 1922. The next day, Mustafa Kemal sent a telegram to the League of Nations saying that the Turkish population was so worked up that the Ankara Government would not be responsible for massacres.
By September 18, 1922, the occupying armies had been expelled, and the Ankara-based Turkish government, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on April 23, 1920, proceeded with the process of building the new Turkish nation. On November 1, 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of July 24, 1923, led to international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed “Republic of Turkey” as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed on October 29, 1923, in Ankara, the country’s new capital. The Lausanne treaty stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey in which 1.1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380,000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey. On March 3, 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was officially abolished and the last Caliph was exiled.
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s Presidency
As president Kemal introduced many radical reforms with the aim of founding a new secular republic from the remnants of the Ottoman empire. For the first 10 years of the new regime, the country saw a steady process of secular Westernization through Atatürk’s reforms, which included education; the discontinuation of religious and other titles; the closure of Islamic courts; the replacement of Islamic canon law with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland’s and a penal code modeled after Italy’s; recognition of gender equality, including the grant of full political rights for women on December 5, 1934; language reform initiated by the newly founded Turkish Language Association, including replacement of the Ottoman Turkish alphabet with the new Turkish alphabet derived from the Latin alphabet; the law outlawing the fez; and the law on family names, which required that surnames be exclusively hereditary and familial, with no reference to military rank, civilian office, tribal affiliation, race, and/or ethnicity.
The British Empire in the Middle East
During the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, the British promised the international Zionist movement their support in recreating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine via the Balfour Declaration, a move that created much political conflict, which is still present today.
Learning Objectives
Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Zionism: Jewish national revival movement in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe; emerging during the late nineteenth century, its goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine
Balfour Declaration: a letter dated November 1917 from the United Kingdom’s Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour to Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland, pledging British support for a Jewish state
British Mandate for Palestine: a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I (British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948.)
During World War I, continued Arab disquiet over Allied intentions led in 1918 to the British “Declaration to the Seven” and the “Anglo-French Declaration,” the latter promising “the complete and final liberation of the peoples who have for so long been oppressed by the Turks, and the setting up of national governments and administrations deriving their authority from the free exercise of the initiative and choice of the indigenous populations.”
The British were awarded three mandated territories by the League of Nations after WWI: Palestine, Mesopotamia (later Iraq), and control of the coastal strip between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan. Faisal was installed as King of Iraq; he was a son of Sharif Hussein (who helped lead the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire). Transjordan provided a throne for another of Hussein’s sons, : Abdullah. Mandatory Palestine was placed under direct British administration, and the Jewish population was allowed to increase, initially under British protection. Most of the Arabian Peninsula fell to another British ally, Ibn Saud, who created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
The British Empire and Palestine
British support for an increased Jewish presence in Palestine was primarily geopolitical, though idealistically embedded in 19th-century evangelical Christian feelings that the country should play a role in Christ’s Second Coming. Early British political support was precipitated in the 1830s and 1840s, as a result of the Eastern Crisis after Muhammad Ali occupied Syria and Palestine. Though these calculations had lapsed as the attempts of Theodor Herzl, the founder of Zionism, to obtain international support for his project failed, WWI led to renewed strategic assessments and political bargaining regarding the Middle and Far East.
Zionism is Jewish national revival movement that emerged during the late nineteenth century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe at that time. Its goal was the establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel, roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan, or the Holy Land. Soon after this, most leaders of the movement associated the main goal with creating the desired state in Palestine, then controlled by the Ottoman Empire.
Zionism was first discussed at the British Cabinet level on November 9, 1914, four days after Britain’s declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire. David Lloyd George, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, discussed the future of Palestine. After the meeting Lloyd George assured Herbert Samuel—fellow Zionist and President of the Local Government Board—that “he was very keen to see a Jewish state established in Palestine.” George spoke of Zionist aspirations for a Jewish state in Palestine and of Palestine’s geographical importance to the British Empire. Samuel wrote in his memoirs: “I mentioned that two things would be essential—that the state should be neutralized, since it could not be large enough to defend itself, and that the free access of Christian pilgrims should be guaranteed…. I also said it would be a great advantage if the remainder of Syria were annexed by France, as it would be far better for the state to have a European power as neighbour than the Turk.”
James Balfour of the Balfour Declaration, explaining the historic significance and context of Zionism, declared that: “The four Great Powers are committed to Zionism. And Zionism, be it right or wrong, good or bad, is rooted in age-long traditions, in present needs, in future hopes, of far profounder import than the desires and prejudices of the 700,000 Arabs who now inhabit that ancient land.”
Through British intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence (aka: Lawrence of Arabia), Britain supported the establishment of a united Arab state covering a large area of the Arab Middle East in exchange for Arab support of the British during the war. Thus, the United Kingdom agreed in the McMahon–Hussein Correspondence that it would honor Arab independence if they revolted against the Ottomans, but the two sides had different interpretations of this agreement. In the end the UK and France divided up the area under the Sykes-Picot Agreement, an act of betrayal in the eyes of the Arabs. Further confusing the issue was the Balfour Declaration of 1917, promising British support for a Jewish “national home” in Palestine. At the war’s end the British and French set up a joint “Occupied Enemy Territory Administration” in what had been Ottoman Syria. The British achieved legitimacy for their continued control by obtaining a mandate from the League of Nations in June 1922. The formal objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the defunct Ottoman Empire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century, “until such time as they are able to stand alone.” The civil Mandate administration was formalized with the League of Nations’ consent in 1923 under the British Mandate for Palestine, which covered two administrative areas. As the Second World War approached, the British empire was invested in the separate and, at points, agendas of nation building in the Middle East among the various peoples therein.
The French Empire in the Middle East
After World War I, Syria and Lebanon became a French protectorate under the League of Nations Mandate System, a move that was met immediately with armed resistance from Arab nationalists. The French government, like the British government, was trying to use the mandate system to maintain an imperial presence in the Middle East. The French government encountered the same kinds of challenges from proponents of decolonization and nationalism as the British government. These forces for decolonization and nationalism were part of the larger stream of these movements across Africa, Asia, and in different ways, the Americas.
Learning Objectives
Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
League of Nations: an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War; the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon
Officially, the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1923 − 1946), was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War, which was meant to partition the Ottoman Empire, especially Syria and Lebanon. The Mandate system was considered the antithesis to colonialism, with the governing country acting as a trustee until the inhabitants were able to stand on their own, at which point the Mandate would terminate and an independent state would be born.
When first arriving in Lebanon, the French were received as liberators by the Christian community, but as they entered Syria, they were faced with a strong resistance. In response, the mandate region was subdivided into six states: Damascus (1920), Aleppo (1920), Alawites (1920), Jabal Druze (1921), the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta (1921, modern-day Hatay), and the State of Greater Lebanon (1920), which became later the modern country of Lebanon. The drawing of those states was based in part on the sectarian makeup of Syria. However, nearly all the Syrian sects were hostile to the French mandate and the division it created, and there were numerous revolts in all of the Syrian states. Maronite Christians of Mount Lebanon, on the other hand, were a community with a dream of independence that was realized under the French. Greater Lebanon was the exception among the other newly formed states, in that its Christian citizens were not hostile to the French Mandate.
Although there were uprisings in the respective states, the French purposefully gave different ethnic and religious groups in the Levant their own lands in the hopes of prolonging their rule. During this time of world decolonization, the French hoped to focus on fragmenting the various groups in the region, so the local population would not focus on a larger nationalist movement to dispose of colonial rule. In addition, administration of colonial governments was heavily dominated by the French. Local authorities were given very little power and did not have the authority to independently decide policy. The small amount of power that local leaders had could easily be overruled by French officials. The French did everything possible to prevent people in the Levant from developing self-sufficient governing bodies. For instance, in 1930 France extended its constitution on to Syria.
Rise in Conflict
With the defeat of Ottomans in Syria, British troops under General Sir Edmund Allenby entered Damascus in 1918 accompanied by troops of the Arab Revolt led by Faisal, son of Sharif Hussein of Mecca. The new Arab administration formed local governments in the major Syrian cities, and the pan-Arab flag was raised all over Syria. The Arabs hoped, with faith in earlier British promises, that the new state would include all the Arab lands stretching from Aleppo in northern Syria to Aden in southern Yemen. However, in accordance with the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France, General Allenby assigned the Arab administration only the interior regions of Syria (the eastern zone). On October 8, French troops disembarked in Beirut and occupied the Lebanese coastal region south to Naqoura (the western zone), replacing British troops there. The French immediately dissolved the local Arab governments in the region.
France demanded full implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement, with Syria under its control. On November 26, 1919, British forces withdrew from Damascus to avoid confrontation, leaving the Arab government to face France.
Unrest erupted in Syria when Faisal accepted a compromise with French Prime Minister Clemenceau and Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann over Jewish immigration to Palestine. Anti-Hashemite manifestations broke out and Muslim inhabitants in and around Mount Lebanon revolted with fear of being incorporated into a new, mainly Christian state of Greater Lebanon, as part of France’s claim to these territories in the Levant was that France was a protector of the minority Christian communities.
On April 25, 1920, the supreme inter-Allied council, that was formulating the Treaty of Sèvres, granted France the mandate of Syria (including Lebanon), and granted Britain the Mandate of Palestine (including Jordan) and Iraq. Syrians reacted with violent demonstrations, and a new government headed by Ali Rida al-Rikabi was formed on May 9, 1920. The new government decided to organize general conscription and began forming an army.
On July 14, 1920, General Gouraud issued an ultimatum to Faisal, giving him the choice between submission or abdication. Realizing that the power balance was not in his favor, Faisal chose to cooperate. However, the young minister of war, Youssef al-Azmeh, refused to comply. In the resulting Franco-Syrian War, Syrian troops under al-Azmeh met French forces under General Mariano Goybet at the Battle of Maysaloun. The French won the battle in less than a day. Azmeh died on the battlefield along with many of the Syrian troops. Goybet entered Damascus on July 24, 1920.
End of the Mandate
With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free French invaded and occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941, but it wasn’t until January 1, 1944, that it was recognized as an independent republic.
On September 27, 1941, France proclaimed, by virtue of and within the framework of the Mandate, the independence and sovereignty of the Syrian State. The proclamation said “the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from the Mandate Act.”
There were protests in 1945 over the slow French withdrawal; the French responded to these protests with artillery. In an effort to stop the movement toward independence, French troops occupied the Syrian parliament in May 1945 and cut off Damascus’s electricity. Training their guns on Damascus’s old city, the French killed 400 Syrians and destroyed hundreds of homes. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and the British forced the French to evacuate the last of its troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that was formed during the mandate.
Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. The early years of independence were marked by political instability.
The Partitioning of Palestine
The UN Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations that recommended a partition of Mandatory Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish States. It was rejected by the Palestinians, leading to a civil war and the end of the British Mandate.
Learning Objectives
Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
League of Nations: an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War; the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration.
British Mandate for Palestine: a geopolitical entity under British administration, carved out of Ottoman Southern Syria after World War I (British civil administration in Palestine operated from 1920 until 1948.)
Background and Early Proposals for Partition
The League of Nations formalized British administration of Palestine as the Palestine Mandate in 1923. This mandate was part of the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire following World War I. The British Mandate in Palestine reaffirmed the 1917 British commitment to the Balfour Declaration for the establishment in Palestine of a “National Home” for the Jewish people, with the prerogative to carry it out. A 1918 British census estimated that 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews lived in Palestine.
During the Interwar period it became clear that the different groups in Palestine would not live in harmony. In 1937, following a six-month Arab General Strike and armed insurrection that aimed to pursue national independence, the British established the Peel Commission. The Jewish population had been attacked throughout the region during the Arab revolt, leading to the idea that the two populations could not be reconciled. The Commission concluded that the British Palestine Mandate had become unworkable, and recommended Partition into an Arab state linked to Transjordan, a small Jewish state, and a mandatory zone.
To address problems arising from the presence of national minorities in each area, the Commission suggested a partition—a land and population transfer involving the transfer of some 225,000 Arabs living in the envisaged Jewish state and 1,250 Jews living in a future Arab state, a measure deemed compulsory “in the last resort.” The Palestinian Arab leadership rejected partition as unacceptable, given the inequality in the proposed population exchange and the transfer of one-third of Palestine, including most of its best agricultural land, to recent immigrants. However, the Jewish leaders—Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion—persuaded the Zionist Congress to lend provisional approval to the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiations. In a letter to his son in October 1937, Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to “possession of the land as a whole.”
The British Woodhead Commission was set up to examine the practicality of partition. The Peel plan was rejected, and two possible alternatives were considered. In 1938 the British government issued a policy statement declaring that “the political, administrative and financial difficulties involved in the proposal to create independent Arab and Jewish States inside Palestine are so great that this solution of the problem is impracticable.” Representatives of Arabs and Jews were invited to London for the St. James Conference, which proved unsuccessful.
MacDonald White Paper of May 1939 declared that it was “not part of [the British government’s] policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State,” and sought to limit Jewish immigration to Palestine and restricted Arab land sales to Jews. However, the League of Nations commission held that the White Paper was in conflict with the terms of the Mandate as put forth in the past.
The outbreak of the Second World War suspended any further deliberations. The Jewish Agency hoped to persuade the British to restore Jewish immigration rights and cooperated with the British in the war against fascism. Aliyah Bet was organized to spirit Jews out of Nazi-controlled Europe despite British prohibitions. The White Paper also led to the formation of Lehi, a small Jewish organization that opposed the British.
After World War II, in August 1945 President Truman asked for the admission of 100,000 Holocaust survivors into Palestine, but the British maintained limits on Jewish immigration in line with the 1939 White Paper. The Jewish community rejected the restriction on immigration and organized an armed resistance. These actions and United States pressure to end the anti-immigration policy led to the establishment of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. In April 1946, the Committee reached a unanimous decision for the immediate admission of 100,000 Jewish refugees from Europe into Palestine, a repeal of the White Paper restrictions of land sale to Jews, that the country be neither Arab nor Jewish, and the extension of U.N. Trusteeship. U.S. endorsed the Commission findings concerning Jewish immigration and land purchase restrictions, while the U.K. conditioned its implementation on U.S. assistance in case of another Arab revolt. In effect, the British continued to carry out White Paper policy. And the recommendations triggered violent demonstrations in the Arab states and calls for a Jihad and an annihilation of all European Jews in Palestine.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is an Arab state in Western Asia constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula. The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four distinct regions: Hejaz, Najd, and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa), and Southern Arabia (‘Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud. He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. Saudi Arabia has since been an absolute monarchy, effectively a hereditary dictatorship governed along Islamic lines. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called “the predominant feature of Saudi culture,” with its global spread largely financed by the oil and gas trade. Saudi Arabia is sometimes called “the Land of the Two Holy Mosques” in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca) and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
Learning Objectives
Explain how the social, political, and military costs of World War I fostered geographic and demographic shifts in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East.
The new kingdom was one of the poorest countries in the world, reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the U.S.-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Saudi Arabia has since become the world’s largest oil producer and exporter, controlling the world’s second largest oil reserves and the sixth largest gas reserves. The kingdom is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy with a high Human Development Index, and it is the only Arab country to be part of the G-20 major economies. However, the economy of Saudi Arabia is the least diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, lacking any significant service or production sector (apart from the extraction of resources). The country has attracted criticism for its restrictions on women’s rights and usage of capital punishment.
After the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottomans in 1916 during World War I, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned by Britain and France. The Emirate of Transjordan was established in 1921 by then Emir Abdullah I and became a British protectorate. In 1946, Jordan became an independent state officially known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. Jordan captured the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and the name of the state was changed to The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and is one of two Arab states to have signed a peace treaty with Israel. The country is a constitutional monarchy, but the king holds wide executive and legislative powers.
The roots of the instability and violence in the Middle East go back to the settlements after the First World War. Conflicting agendas produced compromises unacceptable to many in the interested parties.
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Boundless World History
"Partition of the Ottoman Empire"
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MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
A_world_in_perplexity_(1918)_(14780310121).jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine#/media/File:A_world_in_perplexity_(1918)_(14780310121).jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
440px-French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg.png. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon#/media/File:French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Red Line Agreement. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Line_Agreement. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Resource curse. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_curse. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/MPK1-426_Sykes_Picot_Agreement_Map_signed_8_May_1916.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
A_world_in_perplexity_(1918)_(14780310121).jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine#/media/File:A_world_in_perplexity_(1918)_(14780310121).jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
440px-French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg.png. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon#/media/File:French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
Mandatory Palestine. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike