Environmental Challenges and Environmentalism
Overview
Environmental Concerns and Disasters: 1970s-2000s
During the latter half of the twentieth century people around the world became concerned with a growing number of environmental problems, including air, water, and land pollution, population growth, excessive consumerism, and shortages of a growing number of natural resources, particularly water and arable land. These problems have grown out of the mass production, pollution, and consumerism that came with the Industrial Revolution. Recognition of these problems around the world, along with efforts to solve them, reflect the positive and benevolent character of globalization.
One of the major concerns in the world today revolves around stopping climate change caused by continued reliance on fossil fuels. Climate change visibly epitomizes the impact of pollution in ways people cannot miss, although certainly many with shortsighted economic interests try to deny. Efforts by various groups, individuals, and governments to combat climate change have been frustrated by vested economic interests based on the old and inefficient fossil fuel-based economy. These vested interests either have denied climate change, discounted the effects of climate change, or claimed that they already were doing all they could to stop climate change. Both those who work to stop climate change and those who oppose such efforts are part of globalization, which blurs conventional political and economic borders. As an example, climate activists across the globe emphasize the necessity of countries, companies, and other groups acting in concert; contrarily, their opponents, including Republicans and Democrats in the United States tied to the coal industry, such as U.S. Senator from West Virginia Joe Manchin, claim that making changes in response to climate change will put the U.S. at a disadvantage when compared to nations that do not. These opponents include Republicans and Democrats in the United States who are tied to the coal industry, such as U.S. Senator Joe Manchin from West Virginia; Manchin opposes efforts to stop climate change because many of those who vote for him refuse to abandon coal mining and because he has made over four million from coal mining, and will continue to make more.
Learning Objectives
Identify and explain the environmental challenges that humanity faces today.
Identify, explain, and evaluate responses to these environmental challenges.
Key Terms / Key Concepts
fossil fuel divestment: the removal of investment assets, including fossil fuels, in an attempt to reduce climate change by tackling its ultimate causes
greenhouse gas: a gas in the atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range, which is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect that warms the planet’s surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate system and its related effects. Multiple lines of evidence show that the climate system is warming. Many of the observed changes since the 1950s have unprecedented for over tens of thousands of years.
Efforts to arrest the effects of climate change for which people have been and are responsible, have been carried out at the individual, group, corporate, provincial, national, and international levels.
Eco-Movements of the 1970s-2000s
UNFCCC
One of the first international agreements to reduce the effects of climate change induced by humanity was the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was signed by 154 countries in June 1992. The UNFCCC commits state parties to reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions based on the premise that (a) global warming exists and (b) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it. The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system. As stated in the Convention, this requires that GHG concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion. While the UNFCCC is a start, global emissions continue to rise.
The current state of global warming politics is frustration over a perceived lack of progress within the UNFCCC, which has been unable to curb global GHG emissions. Todd Stern—the U.S. climate change envoy—expressed the challenges with the UNFCCC process as follows, “Climate change is not a conventional environmental issue… It implicates virtually every aspect of a state’s economy, so it makes countries nervous about growth and development. This is an economic issue every bit as it is an environmental one.” Stern went on to explain that the UNFCCC as a multilateral body can be an inefficient system for enacting international policy. Because the framework includes over 190 countries and negotiations are governed by consensus, small groups of countries can often block progress. As a result, some have argued that perhaps the consensus-driven model could be replaced with a majority vote model. However, that would likely drive disagreement at the country level by countries who do not wish to ratify any global agreement that might be governed via majority vote.
Kyoto Protocol
The next step in international efforts to stop climate change induced by humans was the Kyoto Protocol—an international treaty that extended the 1992 UNFCCC. The international community adopted this agreement in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties to the Protocol. The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiate responsibilities: it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of GHGs in the atmosphere. This is justified on the basis that the developed world’s emissions have contributed most to the accumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere on a per-capita basis (i.e., emissions per head of population), while developing countries contribute relatively little, as well as that the emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs.
The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol. The Doha Amendment includes 37 countries that have binding targets: Australia, the European Union (and its 28 member states), Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine. Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not adhere to the amendment and second-round targets. Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto’s first round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period. Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada (which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012) and the United States (which has not ratified the Protocol). As of July 2016, 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment, while entry into force requires the acceptance of 144 states. Of the 37 countries with binding commitments, seven have ratified. Many countries willing to sign, even commit, have not followed through with their promises.
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement, the next in the succession of international agreements to deal with human-induced climate change, is an agreement within the UNFCCC dealing with GHG emissions mitigation, adaptation, and finance. It is to be implemented starting in the year 2020. The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on December 12, 2015. It was opened for signature on April 22, 2016, (Earth Day) at a ceremony in New York. As of December 2016, 194 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty, 136 of which have ratified it. After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016, enough countries had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world’s GHGs for it to enter into force. The agreement went into effect on November 4, 2016.
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2. It outlines a goal of “enhancing the implementation” of the UNFCCC via the following means:
Holding increases in global average temperatures to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels while pursuing efforts to limit these increases to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels
Increasing adaptability to the adverse impacts of climate change while fostering climate resilience and low GHG emissions in a manner that does not endanger food production
Encouraging finance flows that are consistent with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient development.
The Paris Agreement is the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement and has been described as an incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.
Green Movements around the World: 1970s-2000s
International concerns over climate change, resource depletion, and wildlife extinction spurred a rise in eco-friendly, green politics between the 1980s and 2010s. The goals of these organizations ranged from raising awareness and policy change to conservation and the search for clean energy.
Learning Objectives
- Evaluate the impact of modern green politics
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Chico Mendes: Brazilian environmentalist, rainforest protectionist, and humanitarian who was assassinated in 1988
Chipko Movement: environmental movement in India to protect forests that was uniquely led by women
Conservation: practice of protecting natural resources through careful management
EPA: in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency
Greenpeace: first international environmental agency
Preservation: practice of protecting natural resources and ecosystems by leaving them entirely alone
Rachel Carson: American author who wrote the book, Silent Spring
United Tasmania Group: Australian political group that was the first in the world to be openly focused on environmentalism
Eco-Movements of the 1960s and 70s
To an extent, humans have always understood the importance of protecting ecosystems. A balanced and harmonious ecosystem resulted in the overall health and prosperity of humans. Therefore, eco-movements to protect the environment have existed for millennia in one form or another. As the world population grew, and problems over human pollution escalated, so too did the interest in developing large and vocal eco-movements.
Eco-Movements and Green Politics in the United States
Some scholars cite Henry David Thoreau and the transcendentalists with beginning the American eco-movement in the 1830s. Their romanticized, pastoral writings were commercially successful and presented the natural world as a place of beauty worthy of protection and admiration. Further attention was given to the importance of conservatism in the early 1900s under President Theodore Roosevelt, when the United States launched widescale conservation and preservation efforts to save much of the American wilderness and wildlife.
Eco-movements began to take off fully in the 1960s and 70s. In 1962, American author Rachel Carson published her famous book, Silent Spring, about the devastating effects of DDT on bird populations. Her work was enormously influential in the restriction of pesticide use.
Eight years after the publication of Silent Spring, President Richard Nixon created the EPA. The organization is responsible for maintaining and improving environmental protection through monitoring of industries and field research. The same year, the world celebrated the first Earth Day. A year later, the international environmental agency, Greenpeace, was established. Its goals include raising awareness about manmade disasters such as oil spills, and depletion of natural and wildlife resources.
Since the 1970s, dozens of environmental organizations and businesses have emerged in the United States. These entities generally focus on one of the four goals: wildlife and/or habitat conservation, developing “cleaner” or renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and combatting climate change. Among the most prominent United States-based environmental agencies are the National Resources Defense Council, Audubon Society, and Sierra Club.
Eco-Movements around the World
Oceania
Historically, Oceania is one of the most vocal advocates for environmentalism. As early as the 1920s, New Zealand began protecting its ecosystems and wildlife. In 1952, Australia launched the first environmentally focused political party, United Tasmania Group. Since then, Australia has emerged as an advocate for eco-movements and environmental protection. In part, Australia is a strong advocate for environmental protection and climate change reduction because of its geography. Located far south of the equator, Australia is strongly affected by the thinning of the ozone layer due to greenhouse gases. As a result of the depleted ozone, UV rays are strong, and Australians are at increased risk for skin cancer. In the 2000s, the increasing temperatures in Australia are suspected to have increased the number and voracity of wildfires.
Many of the islands of the South Pacific are also strong environmental advocates. Polynesian islands such as Vanuatu are advocates for reducing climate change. These small island nations are among the most susceptible to rising sea levels, caused by the melting of polar ice.
India
Perhaps no other country has experienced such a dramatic, and impactful environmental movement as India. In the late 1960s, deforestation of India’s northeast forests began. In response to the commercial logging, villagers banded together. Known as the Chipko Movement, these villagers would meet the logging companies on site. Uniquely, the movement was comprised largely of women. As women were typically responsible for household farming and cooking, they were the most affected by the soil erosion and the decreased quality of farmable land. Using peaceful resistance methods, they would discourage loggers from their operations. In 1973, a group of women banded together at a logging site and formed human chains around the base of the trees. The moment gave rise to the concept of tree-huggers and launched widescale conservation efforts at the national level.
South Africa
Many African nations have launched conservation efforts. Across the continent, hundreds of national parks have been established to protect native flora and fauna. Among the leading nations for conservation in Africa are Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa.
South Africa’s connection to the environmental movement is unique. In addition to supporting wildlife and habitat conservation, environmental activists in South Africa also were strongly tied to anti-apartheid movements. They frequently campaigned for the protection of both the environment and the peoples of South Africa. Since the dissolution of apartheid, the South African environmental movement has focused on conservation and the development and use of clean, renewable energy.
Challenges to Environmental Movements
Opponents of environmentalism often claim that the movements are hypocritical. Their argument is that while environmentalists claim to protect animals and plants, and on occasion, also human beings, they often do so to the detriment of the developing world. Conservation and preservation stand in the way of developing industry and businesses for many poorer regions of the world, the argument claims. In short, the environmentalist movement often is nicknamed the “white savior” syndrome. Anti-environmentalists argue that white activists who live in relative comfort in the developed world travel to poor, developing regions of the world to demand the people protect the environment. These actions keep the developing world poor, and the developed world wealthy. In short, environmentalism is often criticized as a luxury movement led by people who are typically white, western, and wealthy. For this reason, environmental action is often most effectively undertaken at the local level.
Latin America
As with any part of the world, Latin America is home to leading environmentalists striving to protect ecosystems. Yet, Latin America also remains one of the most challenging regions to effectively enact environmental policies. It is also severely impacted by deforestation, wildlife and habitat loss, loss of arable land, and water pollution. Since the 1990s, deforestation of Brazil’s Amazon rainforest has received international attention. Recognized as the world’s most biodiverse region, numerous efforts have been launched to conserve this remarkable region of the world.
Yet the poverty rate in Latin America remains high, with a high percentage of the population relying on farming for their livelihood. As such, governments, organizations, and individuals have turned to cutting down large tracts of the rainforest to provide farmland. Slash and burn practices remain prevalent, destroying the habitat. While numerous environmentalists have attempted to implement policy changes at the local, state, and national levels, they have frequently been met with violence. None is so famous as Chico Mendes, a renowned rainforest protectionist who was assassinated in 1988. Well-over 1,000 environmental activists have been murdered across Latin America since the 2000s. To date, the protection of the environment remains a battle between environmentalists and business, as well as wealth and poverty.
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