A Concise Glossary of Literary Terms

A Concise Glossary of Literary Terms

Table of Contents

Structure     ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..  2

Theme, Conflict, Protagonist, Characterization, Antagonist, Dynamic/ Round, Static/ Flat, Speaker, Point of view, First person, Third person, Unreliable, Omniscient, Limited Omniscient, Apostrophe, Tone, Atmosphere, Imagery, Onomatopoeia, Alliteration, Assonance, Consonance, Simile, Metaphor, Synecdoche, Personification

Fiction .…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….…………. 4

         Plot, Exposition, Inciting moment, Rising action, Climax, Falling action, Denouement, Irony, Verbal irony, Dramatic irony, Satire, Allegory, Symbolism, Diction

Poetry ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................….………..6

          Lyric poetry, Narrative poetry, Sonnet, Ballad, Dramatic Monologue, Ode, Villanelle, Rhyme, Meter, Rhymed Verse, Blank Verse, Free Verse

Drama ..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7                 Stage Directions, Gestures and Costumes, Music, Lighting, Sound Effects, Props, Structure, Acts, Scenes, Lines, Point of View, Aside, Soliloquy, Tragedy, Hamartia,            Hubris, Catharsis, Chorus, Prologos, Anagnorisis, Symbolism, Plot, Theme, Language, Tragic Irony, Comedy, High, Romantic, Farce, Satiric

Index …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 9

Works Cited …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10

Literature demonstrates great variety along a continuum from poetry to prose. Diverse genres and techniques exist. However, the goal within each work is the same, to touch humanity with a thought that will change people and make a better world. To reach this goal, the author must structure his or her work whether fiction, poetry or drama.

Structure-

        All literature, regardless of genre, contains certain elements. Without those elements, the intended purpose of the author is unclear. Each work must contain a theme or a major point that the author is attempting to convey to the reader. This is usually an abstract idea such as pride leads to a fall. The purpose is to deepen or challenge the reader’s understanding of life. This occurs through concrete details organized in a series of events or the plot. Necessary to develop the plot is a conflict, which is the main struggle, faced by the main character or protagonist. Conflicts universally fall into three broad categories: man vs. man, man vs. himself, or man vs. a higher power. A literary work may contain several conflicts; however, each work contains only one main conflict. The conflict originates in the inciting moment, intensifies in the rising action, reaches its highest intensity at the climax, and is resolved in the falling action and denouement. This basic structure creates a framework for the literary work such as is simply seen in Aesop’s “The Ant and the Grasshopper”:

        One cold day an ant was dragging out a grain, which he had buried during the

        winter (exposition). A hungry grasshopper asked for a bit of the grain (inciting

        moment).” What did you do all summer?” asked the ant (rising action). “I was         

        busy all summer long singing,” replied the grasshopper. “Well,” said the ant

        (climax), “since you sang all summer, now dance all winter (denouement).” (Aesop 129)

The theme of work before pleasure resides in a simple plot and plight of the hungry grasshopper that sang all summer and now has no food for the winter.

        Characterization is the introduction and development of the participants in a work by which the author carries forward the theme and plot. An antagonist is another character or force who opposes the protagonist, or main character. This creates the conflict. Characters may be round, or fully developed, as well as dynamic, changing within the body of the work. The audience knows a fair amount these characters and certainly enough to understand that the conflict exposed in the story has transformed the characters. However, static or flat characters are not well developed and remain consistent throughout the story. Mrs. Turpin in “Revelations” is an example of a round, dynamic character. The reader knows her well enough to see her prejudice and the contemplation of her beliefs as she hoses off the pigs (O’Connor 330). Her husband Claud is a flat character (328). Together both types focus the theme of the story to challenge the reader.

         Important in the structure of any literary work is the speaker, the person telling the story in the work, and his or her perspective. Point of view is the perspective from which the speaker tells the story. First person point of view occurs when the speaker is a part of the story, one of the characters. Third person point of view involves a narrator who has some level of distance from the story. The third person narrator can be omniscient, all knowing concerning the actions and intents of the characters, limited omniscient, only partially understanding the events, motives and characters, neutral,  selective, relaying only some information, or editorial passing moral judgment on the events. An unreliable narrator is influenced in such a manner as to be unable to understand clearly events, as is the case with the narrator in “The Yellow Wallpaper” who suffers a mental breakdown during the story (Gilman 164). The speaker may use a technique called an apostrophe in which a specific character or item not present is addressed as a means of expressing emotions that could not be unveiled otherwise. This is where the tone (the attitude of the author to the work, characters, and conflict) becomes a factor as well as the atmosphere, or emotion within the work. The author’s choice of point of view, speaker, tone and atmosphere has a major impact upon the work. “The Storm” features an intense, stormy atmosphere with an approving tone of the affair between Calixta and Alcee (Chopin 16).

        Imagery and sound devices are tools the author uses to accomplish this feeling allowing the reader to use his senses and become engaged in the work. Onomatopoetic words, such as bang and thump, imitate sounds and create images in the reader’s mind. Alliteration is repetition of accented consonant sounds usually at the beginning of words, such as the idea that Mrs. Turpin was a “wart hog from hell” (O’Connor 326). Assonance is repetition of stressed syllable vowel sounds most often found internally in words. Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in accented syllables often terminating words. A simile is an imaginative, figurative comparison intended to draw a similarity between two items using the words “like”, “as” and others. During her revelation, Mrs. Turpin “saw a streak as a vast swinging bridge” comparing part of the sunset to a bridge by which souls were entering heaven (331). A metaphor is an imaginative comparison between a concrete object, known as the vehicle, and an abstract object, known as the tenor. Sophocles uses the metaphor of physical blindness to introduce Oedipus’ blindness to the truth (914). Personification is the practice of granting human characteristics to non-human objects such as the “Civility” of Death portrayed as a gentleman (Dickenson 564). These devices deepen the readers understanding by helping the reader visualize abstract objects.

Fiction-

        Fiction follows a plot or series of incidents in a work that unveil the conflict and characters, and reveal the theme. Exposition provides important background information for a work that allows the reader to understand the characters and conflict. The moment between introductory exposition and the rising action at which the first obstacle leading to the conflict occurs is the inciting moment. Rising action is a series of incidents or episodes which intensify the plot and fully create the conflict and climax, which is the moment of highest intensity. Following this is a series of incidents in which the conflict is resolved called the falling action. Literally meaning the “unknotting”, the denouement is the resolution of the conflict and plot. Together these elements create the structure of fiction as well as drama and some poetry.

        Beyond structure, many elements are required to create fiction and drama worthy of reading and performance. Irony is a tool used by authors whereby what is expected is not what is actually occurs. Ironically, the duke of “My Last Duchess” in attempting to discredit his late wife, exposes his flaws (Ferrara 604). Verbal irony is words spoken in which the actual meaning is not the intended meaning. Dramatic irony, also known as Sophoclean irony, occurs when the events and intentions of a situation are in contrast to the actual outcome, or when there is a difference between what the characters in the work understand and what the audience understands. “Oedipus the King” provides an ideal example as the audience understands that Oedipus is the cause of the curse before Oedipus himself (Sophocles 910). Words and actions intended to appear so ludicrous to the audience as to provoke them to consider actual events and uncover incorrect actions and behavior are delivered through satire. Requiring deeper thought, an allegory is a work with an additional meaning beyond the literal rendition. Allegorical elements must correlate in a one to one association between the levels of the story. Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown” demonstrates these correlations ranging from the innocence of Faith the wife to the religion, and the darkness of the forest to the darkness of man’s heart (154). Symbolism is the use of a particular object or item to represent another thing or emotion. A rose can symbolically stand for love while darkness symbolizes sin or evil. Diction involves speech patterns and sentence structures within a work used as a means of creating imagery and representing socio-economic and cultural identities. The dialect of the Negro workers in “Revelations” helped created the image of honest but not well-educated Christian workers (O’Connor 329). These tools of the writer give greater meaning to a work.

Poetry-

        Poetic types differ in both form and function. Originally sung, lyric poetry focuses on emotion while narrative poetry is like a story that a narrator tells. The structure of the narrative poem is much like that of a short story. Dickenson’s “Because I could not stop for Death” portrays the fictional story of a surprised character’s voyage to the grave (564). Sonnets can be either English or Italian (Petrachan). While all sonnets contain 14 lines in a precise rhyme scheme, the two types vary in rhyme scheme elements. The ballad is a form of narrative poetry first used as a method of translating and preserving oral history. A dramatic monologue is simply what the name implies: dramatic and a monologue. Ferrara’s “My Last Duchess” detailing the Duke’s story of how his last duchess died is an example of one character dramatically stating a case and making a plea to either another character or the audience (603). The purpose is to express an emotion or move the reader to action. An ode is a type of lyric, usually poetic, which expresses emotions and elevates a person or thing to a higher level. The villanelle is an amazing type of poem in which five triplets and a quatrain are organized in varying end rhyme a and b configurations with a recurring thematic line occurring in the first, third, fifth triplet stanzas as well as the quatrain. The beauty of configuration adds emphasis to the central reoccurring theme of each type of poem.

        Additionally, rhyme and meter styles can vary. Similar sounds are used in stressed syllables to create patterned sound repetition called rhyme. Meter is a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables within a work used to add emphasis to the work. Rhymed verse, such as “My Last Duchess”, contains end rhyme such as “wall” and “call”, while blank verse contains unrhymed iambic pentameter (Ferrara 603). Free verse contains no rhyme or meter; lines are often irregular in length. These writers’ tools create a mood within the work that adds to the tone and atmosphere.

Drama-

        The structure and format of drama is similar to fiction; however, the intended delivery is spoken word in performance. Because of this, many more outward elements are required. Stage directions allow a reader and performer to see and imagine what is to be portrayed outside of the written word. Characters gestures and costumes visually display the sociology, attitudes and actions of a character adding a third dimension to the spoken word. Miller’s “Death of a Salesman” utilizes these tools with an irregular stage “house” and music to highlight action (1200). Acts, scenes, and lines provide a structure as well as often needed breaks for the audience to digest information. Acts are major divisions of a work usually based upon location or topic. Scenes are broken down into a smaller division usually pertaining to particular events or characters, while lines are particular words spoken by a particular character. Additionally, drama includes several techniques intended to make internal or background information available to the audience. An aside is a theatrical device in which an actor reveals information to the audience, apparently talking to them while other characters on the stage are not listening, and thereby includes the audience in otherwise unknown details of the drama. A monologue performed by an actor on stage alone as a means of revealing hidden internal thoughts is a soliloquy. These tools help the audience to discern the plot and theme of the play without requiring additional lines to reveal this information.

        Tragedy is a form of drama with ancient roots. By definition, a tragedy has a tragic hero with hamartia, a hero's tragic flaw, which leads to his downfall. Hubris is the fault in a tragic character when excessive pride or ego leads to his downfall. Oedipus was a tragic hero, with hamartia originating in his pride. Hubris demonstrated his belief that he was greater than the gods were and so could deny the prophecy (Sophocles 943). A cleansing of the emotion, usually pity or terror, availed to the audience is catharsis. Regarding Oedipus, this occurred when he gouges his eyes out and is mourned by the chorus “O the terror-“ explaining the pitiful site of Oedipus blind on the balcony (946). A dramatic tool, the chorus provides information between scenes and added details in a play. An introductory statement in a play that introduces the major characters and provides necessary expository information for the audience early in the drama is the prologue or prologos. Anagnorisis is the discovery revealed in a tragedy especially as it leads to the fall of the tragic hero: In the case of Oedipus, this was the revelation that he had killed his father and married his mother (943). Symbolism, plot, and theme are important elements of drama as well as dramatic language containing metaphors and other imagery and poetic devices, which enrich the plot of the work. Tragic irony, also known as dramatic irony, occurs when a surprising difference occurs between was is intended and what is experienced. Oedipus intended to avoid the prophecy, yet in killing his father unknowingly, he brings this to pass (937). Tragedy as an art form has provided many of the world’s greatest and most memorable plays.

        In contrast to tragedy, comedy as a dramatic form seeks laughter, excitement, and a heightened enjoyment. High comedy relies heavily on verbal communication, whereas romantic comedy presents life and humankind in a perfected state. The farce presents a plot constructed of a ridiculous sequence of events, whereas the satiric presents a negative perception of people and events intended to cause upheaval and a reconsideration of values. These lesser-used dramatic forms are valuable tools in the hands of the playwright as means of entertainment or social change.

        Regardless of genre, literature requires structure and technique. Understanding the types of literature and literary techniques creates a foundation for further enjoyment. While these techniques may seem unintentional to the reader, the reality is that the craft that emanates from timeless masterpieces only serves further to reveal their greatness. It is then that readers can agree with Sophocles “at long last those blows will teach us wisdom” in educating all humanity in eternal truths (988).

A

acts, 7

“The Ant and The Grasshopper” Aesop, 2

alliteration, 4

allegory, 5

anagnorsis, 7

antagonist, 3

apostrophe, 3

aside, 7

assonance, 4

atmosphere, 3

B

ballad, 6

“Because I could not stop for Death”, 4,6

blank verse, 6

C

catharsis, 7

characterization, 3

Chopin “The Storm”, 4

chorus, 7

climax, 4

comedy, 8

conflict, 2

consonance, 4

costumes and gestures, 7

D

“Death of a Salesman”, Miller, 7

denouement 5

Dickenson, Emily “Because I could …”, 4,6

diction, 5

dramatic irony, 5

dramatic monologue, 6

dynamic character, 3

E

editorial point of view, 3

exposition, 4

F

falling action, 5

farce, 8

Ferrara “My Last Duchess”, 5,6

first-person point of view, 3

flat character, 3

free verse, 6

H

hamartia, 7

Hawthorne, N. “Young Goodman Brown”, 5

high comedy, 8

hubris, 7

I

imagery, 4

inciting moment, 4

irony, 5

L

limited omniscient point of view, 3

lines, 7

lyric poetry 6

M

metaphor 4

meter 6

Miller, Arthur “Death of a Salesman” 7

“My Last Duchess” Ferrara 5,6

N

narrative poetry 6

neutral point of view 3

O

O’Connor, Flannery “Revelations” 3, 4

ode, 6

“Oedipus the King” Sophocles, 4, 5, 7, 8

onomatopoeia, 4

omniscient point of view, 3

P

personification, 4

plot, 2,4, 8

point-of view, 3

prologos, 7

protagonist, 2

R

“Revelations” O’Connor, 3,4,5

rhyme, 6

rhymed verse, 6

rising action, 4

romantic drama, 8

round character, 3

S

satire, 5, 8

scenes, 7

selective point of view, 3

simile, 4

soliloquy, 7

sonnet, 6

Sophoclean irony, 5

Sophocles “Oedipus the King”, 4, 5, 7, 8

static character, 3

“The Storm” Chopin, 4

symbolism, 5, 8

T

theme,2, 8

“The Ant and the Grasshopper” Aesop, 2

third-person point of view, 3

tone, 3

tragic irony, 8

U

unreliable narrator, 3

V

verbal irony, 5

villanelle, 6

Y

“The Yellow Wallpaper” Gilman, 3

“Young Goodman Brown” Hawthorne, 5

Works Cited

Aesop. “The Ant and the Grasshopper.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 129. Print.

Dickenson, Emily. “Because I could not stop for Death.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011.         564. Print.

Ferrara. “My Last Duchess.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 603-04. Print.

Gilman, Charlotte. “The Yellow Wallpaper.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet,  William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 164-75. Print.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel.” Young Goodman Brown.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan  Barnet, William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011.                   155-63. Print.

Miller, Arthur.” Death of a Salesman.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William  Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 1199-1267. Print.

O’Connor, Flannery. “Revelations.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William  Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 318-32. Print.

Sophocles. “Oedipus the King.” An Introduction to Literature. Ed. Sylvan Barnet, William Burto, and William E. Cain. 16th ed. New York: Longman, 2011. 910-52. Print.