War in the Desert: World War I in the Middle East
Overview
The World War in the Middle East
World War I was a global war fought in most corners of the earth, and the Middle East was no exception. A large and long war raged in the Middle East that involved the Ottoman Empire, the British, the Russians, and independent Arab kingdoms. The war was fought in the Middle East from 1914-1918, throughout present-day Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Palestine. Of the many wars that raged in the Middle East during World War I, none is as famous as the 1916 Arab Revolt, which involved the exploits of British archeologist, T.E. Lawrence.
Learning Objectives
- Examine the significance of the Arab Revolt
Key Terms / Key Concepts
Arab Revolt: revolt against the Ottoman Empire led by the Arab forces from the kingdoms of Hejaz and Transjordan
Emir Faisal: Arab prince who led the Arab Revolt
T.E. Lawrence: British archeologist who orchestrated, and helped lead much of the Arab Revolt
The Arab Revolt
Background
The Ottoman Empire had an extensive military history when World War I erupted. Because of its military pursuits, it had created many enemies, including many in the Middle East. One of the groups who strongly resented the Ottomans were the independent Arab clans, particularly those in present-day Saudi Arabia. For this reason, the Arabs did not side with the Ottomans when World War I began. Instead, they saw the war as an opportunity to break away from their former overlords and aggressors. In 1915, a young archeologist from Great Britain would enter their world—T.E. Lawrence. He had investigated numerous Middle Eastern archeological sites before the war, and learned Arabic, and many Arab customs. For these reasons, he was employed by the British army as an intelligence officer in the Middle East in 1915. Once there, he developed a close friendship with Emir Faisal, prince of the Kingdom of Hejaz in present-day Saudi Arabia.
The Arab Revolt of 1916
On June 5, 1916, the Arab forces under Emir Faisal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina, launching the Arab Revolt. For three days, the forces fought against the better-equipped Ottomans. Although they were officially forced to retreat with the Ottomans in pursuit, Arab nationalism ran strong, and the Arab Revolt had just begun. On June 10, the Arabs captured the holy city, Mecca.
Owing to a secret treaty with the Arabs, the British launched a naval bombardment of the Ottoman ports along the Red Sea. When the port cities fell to the British, increased numbers of troops and supplied funneled into the Middle East. Thomas Edward (T.E.) Lawrence became instrumental in liaising between the British and the Arab forces. For the rest of 1916, Lawrence would team with the Arabs in a series of hit and run tactics that included the destruction of Ottoman infrastructure. Of particular importance was the campaign to capture Aqaba, a major port city in present-day Jordan.
With the city captured, Faisal took command of Aqaba and the British sent additional resources and men to bolster the Arabs. The desert, however, was not an easy environment to endure. 400,000 gallons of water per day were required for the British troops and their animals. Disease was rampant, especially dysentery, malaria, syphilis, and typhoid. The heat was scorching, the land remote and unforgiving. Tragically, the easiest and fastest way to send for medical help was by camel. To combat the elements, British troops frequently dressed in Arab robes and sandals or bare feet.
Additional Victories
After the capture of Aqaba, the Arab forces achieved numerous other victories. In 1917, they opened the Palestinian Front, and ultimately captured Gaza. The following year, much of the Hejaz Railroad that the Ottomans had constructed was destroyed by Emir Faisel and his forces. Jerusalem was taken over by the Arabs, and the important city of Damascus fell to the Arabs. After these successive defeats, the Ottomans surrendered in November 1918.
After the World War
The British remained allied with the Arabs throughout the rest of World War I, although the alliance was far from smooth. In 1918, the Arabs imagined they would be rewarded for their efforts in the war by the creation of a national Arab state. They were misled by their European allies, who rejected the idea of a national Arab state. Instead, Britain and France divided much of the Middle East into protectorates of their empires.
Primary Source: Excerpt from, Revolt in the Desert, T. E. Lawrence
T.E. Lawrence's account of a village destroyed by the Turks in Sept., 1918
"The village lay stilly under its slow wreaths of white smoke, as we rode near, on our guard. Some grey heaps seemed to hide in the long grass, embracing the ground in the close way of corpses. We looked away from these, knowing they were dead; but from one a little figure tottered off, as if to escape us. It was a child, three or four years old, whose dirty smock was stained red over one shoulder and side, with blood from a large half-fibrous wound, perhaps a lance thrust, just where neck and body joined.
The child ran a few steps, then stood and cried to us in a tone of astonishing strength (all else being very silent), 'Don't hit me, Baba.' Abd el Aziz, choking out something - this was his village, and she might be of his family - flung himself off his camel, and stumbled, kneeling, in the grass beside the child. His suddenness frightened her, for she threw up her arms and tried to scream; but, instead, dropped in a little heap, while the blood rushed out again over her clothes; then, I think, she died.
We rode past the other bodies of men and women and four more dead babies, looking very soiled in the daylight, towards the village; whose loneliness we now knew meant death and horror. By the outskirts were low mud walls, sheepfolds, and on one something red and white. I looked close and saw the body of a woman folded across it, bottom upwards, nailed there by a saw bayonet whose haft stuck hideously into the air from between her naked legs. About her lay others, perhaps twenty in all, variously killed.
The Zaagi burst into wild peals of laughter, the more desolate for the warm sunshine and clear air of this upland afternoon. I said, 'The best of you bring me the most Turkish dead,' and we turned after the fading enemy, on our way shooting down those who had fallen out by the roadside and came imploring our pity. One wounded Turk, half naked, not able to stand, sat and wept to us. Abdulla turned away his camel's head, but the Zaagi, with curses, crossed his track and whipped three bullets from his automatic through the man's bare chest. The blood came out with his heart beats, throb, throb, throb, slower and slower.
Tallal had seen what we had seen. He gave one moan like a hurt animal; then rode to the upper ground and sat there a while on his mare, shivering and looking fixedly after the Turks. I moved near to speak to him, but Auda caught my rein and stayed me. Very slowly Tallal drew his headcloth about his face; and then he seemed suddenly to take hold of himself, for he dashed his stirrups into the mare's flanks and galloped headlong, bending low and swaying in the saddle, right at the main body of the enemy.
It was a long ride down a gentle slope and across a hollow. We sat there like stone while he rushed forward, the drumming of his hoofs unnaturally loud in our ears, for we had stopped shooting, and the Turks had stopped. Both armies waited for him; and he rocked on in the hushed evening till only a few lengths from the enemy. Then he sat up in the saddle and cried his war cry, 'Tallal, Tallal,' twice in a tremendous shout. Instantly their rifles and machine-guns crashed out, and he and his mare riddled through and through with bullets, fell dead among the lance points.
Auda looked very cold and grim. 'God give him mercy; we will take his price.' He shook his rein and moved slowly after the enemy. We called up the peasants, now drunk with fear and blood, and sent them from this side and that against the retreating column. The old lion of battle waked in Auda's heart, and made him again our natural, inevitable leader. By a skilful turn he drove the Turks into bad ground and split their formation into three parts.
The third part, the smallest, was mostly made up of German and Austrian machine-gunners grouped round three motor cars and a handful of mounted officers or troopers. They fought magnificently and repulsed us time and again despite our hardiness. The Arabs were fighting like devils, the sweat blurring their eyes, dust parching their throats; while the flame of cruelty and revenge which was burning in their bodies so twisted them that their hands could hardly shoot. By my order we took no prisoners, for the only time in our war.'”
From Eyewitness to History http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lawrence.htm
Attributions
Willmott, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, New York: 2012. 236-241.
Excerpt from, Revolt in the Desert. Lawrence, Thomas Edward, 1927. Hosted by EyeWitnesstoHistory.com.
Lawrence of Arabia, 1918 (eyewitnesstohistory.com)
Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons